Essential Questions for Postsecondary Completion: Positive, Supportive Environments

Students feel physically, mentally, and emotionally safe at school or campus (that is, safe from both physical threats and violence, as well as bullying and cyberbullying) (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of students indicating they feel safe and cared for at their school (National Education Association).

Percent of students with mental health challenges and/or life stressors (i.e.: financial) (Cost of College: Stress Pushes Students to Consider Stopping).

Percentage of educators surveyed indicating they feel safe and cared for at their school (National Education Association).

Percentage of public school employees in each job category who have received in-service training on intervention techniques, such as restorative practices (National Education Association).

Schools report disaggregated data on incidents of student bullying on a daily or weekly basis (National Education Association).

Student-to-counselor ratio and access to school social workers

The National Dropout Prevention Center/Network’s 15 Effective Strategies for Dropout Prevention: Safe Learning Environments  —  Safe, orderly, nurturing, inclusive, and inviting learning environments help students realize potential as individuals and as engaged members of society. All students need to be safe, physically and emotionally; to be expected to achieve; to be recognized and celebrated equitably for accomplishments; and to feel genuinely welcomed and supported. A safe and orderly learning environment provides both physical and emotional security as well as daily experiences that enhance positive social attitudes and effective interpersonal skills. A safe, nurturing, and responsive learning environment supports all students, teachers, cultures, and subgroups; honors and supports diversity and social justice; treats students equitably; and recognizes the need for feedback, innovation, and second chances (The National Dropout Prevention Center/Network, 15 Effective Strategies for Dropout Prevention).

Institutions allocate resources toward interventions around student safety issues (e.g., LGBTQ+ bullying and harassment) (National Education Association).

% of students enrolling in colleges by race and gender. In an interview with NPR, Dr. Calvin Hadley of Howard University commented on the decline of black men enrolling in Historically Black Colleges and Universities: “At every educational institution, we want a diversity of experience. And so when you don’t have as many males in the classroom, that diversity of experience is significantly impacted…I think we’re dealing with some really unique statistics right now. Black males are graduating at a much lower rate than Black females.” (NPR, Fewer Black men are enrolling in HBCUs).

Percentage of students reporting belonging on campus, as measured by surveys such as the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) Diverse Learning Environments Survey, the National Institute for Transformation and Equity (NITE) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) Survey, or the Ascend survey’s Belonging Certainty, Identity Safety, Social Belonging, and Social Connectedness scales (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Individuals feel they belong and feel connected to their peers in their schools, postsecondary institutions, and workplaces (Education-to-Workforce).

Diversity of faculty (National Education Association).

Percentage of faculty who have received professional development in culturally-responsive pedagogy (National Education Association).

Percentage of faculty who have received professional learning time in equity and racial and social justice (National Education Association).

Percentage of faculty who have received professional learning time in implicit bias (National Education Association).

Percentage of faculty who have received professional learning time in trauma-related practices (National Education Association).

Measurement of bullying, harassment and discrimination (Data sources: Youth Risk Behavior Survey; local school climate surveys) (StriveTogether 2021).

Institutions create inclusive environments through an intentional, comprehensive approach that includes access to basic needs and services, embracing flexibility in the delivery of courses, building relationships with community and industry partners and cultivating anchoring relationships with students (The Lumina Foundation).

Institutions implement effective practices to support part-time students in completing their degrees, such as developing and sustaining collaboration across campus departments, partnering with employers, recognizing and valuing lived experiences, and providing comprehensive student support services (MDRC).

Schools dedicate professional learning time to culturally-responsive pedagogy (National Education Association).

Schools dedicate professional learning time to equity and racial and social justice (National Education Association).

Schools dedicate professional learning time to implicit bias (National Education Association).

Schools dedicate professional learning time to trauma-informed practices (National Education Association).

Protecting & Promoting Diversity & Inclusion: Attacks on higher education diversity and inclusion initiatives across the country put at risk the wellbeing, safety, and sense of belonging among students of color. The National College Attainment Network opposes efforts to eliminate diversity and inclusion initiatives and instead encourages policymakers to redouble their commitment to enhancing diversity to help narrow persistent gaps in college access and completion (National College Attainment Network, State Policy Priorities).

Institutions allocate funds to advance educators’ awareness of implicit bias (National Education Association).

Institutions allocate funds to advance educators’ competence in culturally-responsive pedagogy (National Education Association).

Institutions allocate funds to advance educators’ understanding of equity and racial and social justice (National Education Association).

Institutions allocate funds to advance educators’ understanding of trauma-informed practices (National Education Association).

Institutions allocate resources to a workforce wellness and safety program, ensuring educators of color and LGBTQ+ educators feel safe and cared for in their schools (National Education Association).

State develops a policy that requires annual reporting by institutions on school climate and student engagement (National Education Association).

Ratio of number of students to number of health, mental health, and social services FTE staff (for example, school nurses, psychologists, and social workers) (Education-to-Workforce).

Physical health/fitness of students (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Rate of teen parenthood (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Rate of drug/substance use/abuse (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Depression Screen: Depression is measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), a nine-item instrument based on the symptoms provided in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders for a major depressive episode in the past two weeks (Spitzer, Kroenke, & Williams, 1999) (Healthy Minds Study).

Anxiety Screen: Anxiety is measured using the GAD-7, a seven-item screening tool for screening and severity measuring of generalized anxiety disorder in the past two weeks (Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, & Lowe, 2006) (Healthy Minds Study).

Eating Disorder Screen: Eating disorders are measured using the written U.S. version of the SCOFF, a five-item screening tool designed to identify subjects likely to have an eating disorder (Morgan, Reid, & Lacey, 1999) (Healthy Minds Study).

Loneliness screen: “How often do you feel (a) you lack companionship; (b) left out; (c) isolated from others?” (Healthy Minds Study).

Suicidality and self-injurious behavior: suicidal ideation within the past year; suicide plan within the past year, suicide attempt within the past year, non-suicidal self-injury within the past year (Healthy Minds Study).

Lifetime diagnoses of mental disorders: “Have you ever been diagnosed with any of the following conditions by a health professional (e.g., primary care doctor, psychiatrist, psychologist, etc.)?” Respondents are asked to select all that apply from the following list: Substance use disorder (e.g., alcohol abuse, abuse of other drugs); Personality disorder (e.g., antisocial personality disorder, paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder); Psychosis (e.g., schizophrenia, schizo-affective disorder); Eating disorder (e.g., anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa); Neurodevelopmental disorder or intellectual disability (e.g., attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder); Trauma and stressor related disorders (e.g., posttraumatic stress disorder); Obsessive-compulsive or related disorders (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphia); Anxiety (e.g., generalized anxiety disorder, phobias); Bipolar (e.g., bipolar I or II, cyclothymia); Depression or other mood disorders (e.g., major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder) (Healthy Minds Study).

Availability and usage of services, as reported by students (New America).

Campus structure and resources, including the following indicators: General population support services (e.g., guidance counselor, college counselor, employment assistance, emergency funds, disability support); ELL or dual-language program(s) offered; Special education and support for students with disabilities; Advanced coursework (e.g., AP, IB, dual enrollment/early college); Ability tracking; Career pathway programming for students (e.g., internships, credentials, vocational education, job fairs, job readiness programming); College connections (e.g., visits to school by college representatives, college centers); Health and mental health services; Socioemotional/leadership development interventions; General population programs/interventions (e.g., reading programs, incentive systems); Online learning; Curriculum/teaching materials (not infrastructural); Curriculum development (including for cultural relevance); Teacher and staff professional development (including on data usage, collaborative and systemic analysis of student work, formative assessment practices); Specials (physical education, electives, extracurricular activities, and enrichment programming); Student affiliation or decision making bodies (e.g., GSA, student government). (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

College faculty feels comfortable having conversations with students about their mental health (Healthy Minds Study).

College faculty have a good idea of how to recognize that a student is in emotional or mental distress (Healthy Minds Study).

College faculty believe that student mental health problems are significantly worse now compared to when I began my career (Healthy Minds Study).

College faculty believe supporting students in mental and emotional distress has taken a toll on my own mental and emotional health (Healthy Minds Study).

In the past 12 months, college faculty have had any one-on-one conversations with students (whether in person, by phone, video conference, or email) about their mental or emotional health? (Healthy Minds Study).

Mentoring and coaching strengthen the role advisors play in helping students achieve their educational and career goals. Mentoring is an informal, supportive relationship with someone like a faculty member, peer, or professional in the student’s field of interest. Coaching is a more formal, structured relationship with a trained coach, such as a student success coach, focused on specific goals. Both approaches motivate students and help them set and reach their goals (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Supporting Students’ Basic Needs: In an interview conducted with state-level members of the National College Attainment Network, members in four states (California, New York, Ohio, Tennessee) identified better support for students’ basic needs as a key state policy issue. When members discussed student basic needs, they included access to housing, food, transportation, and other supports necessary for postsecondary success outside of tuition and fees. Organizations considered the impact of a wide variety of student needs – from financial to social-emotional – on access and attainment outcomes. One member suggested that many access and attainment policies are “outdated and antiquated” and “don’t address the needs and wants of students today.” Another interviewee shared their belief that “students need to be at the table, with a voice, and with a vote” to ensure that more holistic supports are provided. Members across states highlighted policy efforts to support student mental health, assist with food, housing, and transportation, and ensure that students are retained throughout their postsecondary education because concerns about their basic needs are alleviated (NCAN, Building Momentum at the State Level).

Self-management: percentage of individuals reporting a high level of self-management on surveys such as the Shift and Persist scale for teens and adults (Education to Workforce Framework).

Growth mindset: percentage of students reporting a high level of growth mindset on surveys such as the Growth Mindset Scale developed by Carol Dweck (Education to Workforce Framework).

Self-efficacy: percentage of individuals reporting a high level of self-efficacy on surveys such as the New General Self-Efficacy Scale or Ascend survey’s Self-Efficacy Scale (Education to Workforce Framework).

Social awareness: percentage of individuals demonstrating social proficiency on a performance assessment, such as the National Work Readiness Credential Essential Soft Skills assessment (Education to Workforce Framework).

Cultural competency: percentage of students demonstrating proficiency on an assessment of cultural competency, such as the HEIghten Outcomes Assessment for Intercultural Competency & Diversity or The Intercultural Development Inventory  (Education to Workforce Framework).

Civic engagement: percentage of individuals reporting a high level of civic engagement on surveys such as the Index of Civic and Political Engagement (Education to Workforce Framework).

Civic engagement of high school graduates: Voter participation (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Civic engagement of high school graduates: Incarceration rates (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Civic engagement of high school graduates: Rates of volunteerism (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Civic engagement of high school graduates: Community organization participation and leadership. (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Deeper learning skills of high school graduates: Skills/ability (creativity; confidence; self-regulation, responsibility, goal-setting, reflexivity; social interaction/communication; critical thinking/problem solving; information and technology; resourcefulness) (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Deeper learning skills of high school graduates: Mission motivation to learn and be challenged/academic self-concept (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Deeper learning skills of high school graduates: Appreciation of and ability to engage with diversity/equity (Urban Institute, Robust and Equitable Measures to Identify Quality Schools).

Self-management: Students are able to regulate their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in different situations; percentage of students reporting a high level of self-management on surveys such as the CORE Districts (Education-to-Workforce).

Growth mindset: Students believe that their abilities can grow with effort; percentage of students reporting a high level of growth mindset on surveys such as the CORE Districts SEL Survey Growth Mindset Scale (grades 5–12) or the Growth Mindset Scale developed by Carol Dweck, which may be used with children, teens, and adults. (Education-to-Workforce).

Self-efficacy: Students believe in their ability to achieve an outcome or reach a goal. percentage of students reporting a high level of self-efficacy on surveys such as the CORE Districts Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) Survey self-efficacy scale (Education-to-Workforce).

Social awareness: Students are able to understand others’ perspectives; understand social and ethical norms for behavior; and recognize family, school, and community resources and supports. Percentage of students reporting a high level of social awareness on surveys such as the CORE Districts SEL Survey social awareness scale, or percentage of students meeting benchmarks on teacher ratings of social skills drawn from Elliott and Gresham’s Social Skills Rating Scale (Education-to-Workforce).

Cultural competency: Individuals are able to understand the perspectives of and empathize with others from diverse backgrounds and cultures. Reflecting the lack of developed tools in the field, the EW Framework is unable to recommend a specific measurement tool. In some contexts, it might be possible to adapt an existing measure for adults for use with youth. For examples, the HEIghten Outcomes Assessment for Intercultural Competency & Diversity or The Intercultural Development Inventory®. (Education-to-Workforce).

Civic engagement: Individuals exhibit the knowledge, skills, values, motivation, and activities that promote quality of life within a community and society at large through political and nonpolitical processes. percentage of students reporting a high level of civic engagement on surveys such as the Youth Civic and Character Measures Toolkit Survey and Youth Civic Engagement Indicators Project Survey (Education-to-Workforce).

Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning’s (CASEL) best practices for building inclusive school environments through social-emotional learning (CASEL).

Promoting personal interaction to build trust and relationships, for example by greeting students by name and shaking hands at the beginning of class (PACE, Enacting Social-Emotional Learning).

Advisory periods that provide teachers and students time to form relationships, learn social skills, discuss issues like bullying, and process difficult events happening on or off campus (PACE, Enacting Social-Emotional Learning).

Inclusion strategies, such as organizing student volunteers to reach out to isolated or lonely students, and student clubs that specifically offer support to groups that might feel excluded at school (e.g., African American or Latinx students, special education students, or female students interested in computer coding) (PACE, Enacting Social-Emotional Learning).

Impact of teaching a growth mindset: Researchers Susana Claro and Susanna Loeb estimate that the average growth in English language arts and math scores corresponding to the difference between a fixed mindset to a growth mindset (an approximately two standard deviation change) are approximately 0.07 and 0.05 standard deviations in the corresponding test performance. Based on a rough calculation developed by Hanushek, Peterson & Woessmann (2012), these changes are equivalent to more than 35 days of learning. The difference is especially meaningful considering that the evidence that social-emotional barriers such as a fixed mindset can potentially be addressed by low-cost scalable interventions (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Targeted approaches for struggling, at-risk, or historically marginalized students, ranging from professional counseling, multi-tiered systems of support for struggling students, and programs meant to support equity, particularly for African American youth (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Strategies for managing emotions, such as permitting students to redo assignments and tests to reduce pressure and show students they can improve over time with consistent effort (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Modeling appropriate language and mindsets, for example by providing concrete protocols for how students should communicate with one another or by coaching students to say “I can’t do it YET” instead of “I can’t do it.” (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Opportunities for adults to learn about social-emotional learning, such as professional development on topics like growth mindset; staff meetings where educators model the kinds of behaviors and language expected of students, or pairing experienced teachers with new teachers for coaching on social-emotional learning practices (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

School- or staff-led local data collection efforts to provide more rapid or specific feedback, such as developing short student surveys, administered monthly, to track whether students feel safe, have friends, and have a trusted adult connection at school (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Schools with strong SEL practices tend to implement with intention. Practices used to foster social-emotional learning and positive campus climate are implemented intentionally, not in a spontaneous or ad hoc manner. When formal programs are implemented, there are clear roles for staff, specific training, and purposeful rules and incentives. Appropriate levels of staffing and financial investment also appear to be important to success (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Schools with strong SEL practices tend to promote student agency and leadership. Educators in outlier schools believe that youth-led efforts help students engage and also promote positive behaviors and a school culture of trust and inclusion. Strategies range from buddy programs and student-led lessons on respect (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

To advance social-emotional learning, schools need to invest in relevant staff positions and adult learning activities. All of the outlier schools we studied received some form of professional development around social-emotional learning topics (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Campuses can integrate social-emotional learning and racial equity efforts. While many of the educators in the study cited approach their work with a strong equity orientation, not all connect their specific social-emotional learning strategies to their equity goals. As a result, schools may be left with an incomplete or incoherent approach (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Faculty training in how to integrate social emotional learning, such as self-regulation, growth mindset, and progress monitoring, into coursework approaches (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

K-12 systems can provide support to help schools integrate social-emotional learning and subject area content  —  an area that even the strongest outlier schools are just beginning to explore. One CORE district has integrated social-emotional learning into its content standards. A few others have curricula that include or emphasize social-emotional learning topics. Moving forward, policymakers and educational leaders could consider what content-specific social-emotional learning practice looks like and how to support it at scale (PACE, Students with Growth Mindset Learn More in School).

Individuals have access to and are able to mobilize relationships that help them further their goals (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of students or individuals reporting a high level of social capital on surveys such as the Social Capital Assessment + Learning for Equity (SCALE) 

Network Diversity, and Network Strength scales (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Percentage of students or individuals reporting a high level of social capital on surveys such as the Social Capital Assessment + Learning for Equity (SCALE) Social Capital, Network Diversity, and Network Strength scales. (Education-to-Workforce).

The EW Framework recommends consulting guidance by the Christensen Institute that describes emerging practices for measuring students’ social capital using a four-dimensional framework based on quantity of relationships, quality of relationships, structure of networks, and ability to mobilize relationships (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

A student has strong developmental relationships, that is, close connections through which young people discover who they are, gain abilities to shape their own lives, and learn how to interact with and contribute to the world around them. A developmental relationship is distinct from more generalized notions of positive relationships in that it is defined by the combination of five interconnected elements: express care, challenge growth, provide support, share power, and expand possibilities (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

A student has access to the resources provided by developmental relationships. Resources can include things such as financial or material help, information, skill-building opportunities, guidance, and values and norms. The following social capital measure focuses on three types of resources: access to useful information, new connections, and skill-building opportunities (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Students have a web or network of developmentally-rich relationships that can provide access to valuable resources. There are several indicators that have been used to understand the quality of an individual’s social network, such as network structure, size, diversity, and strength (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Students have people in their network who are from different cultures, racial and ethnic backgrounds, economic backgrounds, and have different skills (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Students have people in their network they can go to for help, trust, and feel close to, as well as people who they feel less close to (i.e., weaker tie) but who may be influential in helping them access their goals or who may connect them to others (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Catalysts to Mobilize Relationships and Resources: The degree to which an individual has different relationships that help build their self-awareness, confidence, relationships-building skills, and possible selves (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Self-Initiated Social Capital: The degree to which an individual actively builds relationships and uses the relationships and the resources they have to reach their goals (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Relationship-Building Skills: The degree to which an individual is able to build positive relationships with others (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Networking Skills: The degree to which an individual purposefully uses relationships within their social network to reach their goals (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Personal Identity: The degree to which an individual has a clear sense of their personal identity (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Racial and Ethnic Identity: The degree to which an individual has a clear sense of their racial and ethnic background and what this identity means to them (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Sense of Purpose: The degree to which an individual has a clear sense of their life’s purpose (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Self-Efficacy for Reaching Life Goals: The degree to which an individual feels they can successfully reach their life goals  (Search Institute, Social Capital Assessment).

Progress Towards Education or Career Goals: The degree to which an individual reports making progress towards their education or career goals (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Commitment to Paying It-Forward: The degree to which an individual engages in behaviors that demonstrate a commitment to paying-it-forward to others (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Collective Efficacy to Change Systems: The degree to which an individual feels that they can work with their program or organization to change employment and education systems (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Occupational Identity: The degree to which an individual has a clear sense of their occupational identity (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Job-Seeking Skills: The degree to which an individual engages in behaviors that may lead to securing employment  (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

To measure concentration of social capital at a systems level, users could consider an index adapted from researchers Anil Rupasingha and Stephan Goetz.  Their index includes: the number of all associations per 10,000 population, including religious organizations, civic and social associations, political organizations, professional organizations, labor organizations, physical fitness facilities, public golf courses, and sports clubs. The measure also includes commercial and nonprofit associations drawn from Census Bureau County Business Patterns data. It also includes 

the percentage of voters who participated in a presidential, state, or county election (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

• The county-level census response rate in the person’s county (Education-to-Workforce Framework).
• The number of charitable, nonprofit organizations with an office in the county (Education-to-Workforce Framework).
• Cohesiveness: The degree to which a person’s social networks are fragmented into cliques  (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Economic connectedness: The degree to which low-income and high-income people are friends with each other. Studies have shown that children who grow up in communities with more economic connectedness (cross-class interaction) are much more likely to rise up out of poverty (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Civic engagement: Rates of volunteering and participation in community organizations (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Program Support for Social Capital Development: The degree to which an individual reports receiving forms of support as a result of participating in a program that is believed to promote social capital (e.g., skill building, increasing network size) (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Sense of Program/School Community: The degree to which an individual feels a sense of community within their program, school, or organization (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Psychological Safety: The degree to which an individual feels their program or organization provides a safe space for them to express who they are as an individual (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Volunteer Support: The degree to which an individual perceives that volunteers in their program or organization have provided them with social capital support (e.g., useful information, new connections) (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Seeking Volunteer Support: The degree to which an individual actively seeks social capital support from volunteers within their program or an organization (e.g., asks for information, guidance, and other forms of instrumental support) (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Seeking Teacher/Professor Support: The degree to which an individual actively seeks social capital support from teachers, professors, managers, and other campus staff (e.g., asks for information, guidance, and other forms of instrumental support) (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).
• Number of membership associations per 100,000 people. Membership associations provide opportunities for people to form robust social networks in a community (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Economic connectedness index. This metric reflects the extent to which people with low socioeconomic status and people with high socioeconomic status are friends, as measured through connections on Facebook (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Students’ social capital in STEM education (derived from families, peers, teachers, and professional networks) demonstrably promotes their STEM educational outcomes and career paths. Inclusive STEM schools and mentoring programs are some promising approaches that can enhance STEM social capital and outcomes of underrepresented students, particularly women, Blacks/Hispanics/Native Americans, youth with low socioeconomic status, and persons with disabilities (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Schools and nonprofit organizations can help cultivate social capital among young people through educational and non-educational programming (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Providing relevant bridging social capital may make other programs that seek to increase economic mobility more effective. For example, recent programs that have had large impacts in helping families move to higher-opportunity neighborhoods or obtain higher-paying jobs provide bridging social capital and outperform traditional programs that focus solely on economic resources or skills. These results suggest that prioritizing the provision of adequate social support so people can take advantage of available economic resources may greatly amplify the impacts of existing programs to reduce intergenerational poverty (Opportunity Insights, Social Capital and Economic Mobility).

Encouraging the formation of neighborhood associations (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Promoting civic engagement and participation, including by creating connections between neighborhood residents and city leaders (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Creating and maintaining parks and other public spaces such as libraries that give residents the opportunity to interact with one another (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Encouraging socializing across socioeconomic groups, including by designing public spaces intentionally and fostering connections across neighborhoods (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Supporting labor unions and the right to organize (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Interventions such as zoning and affordable housing policies aimed at integrating neighborhoods and college admissions reforms to boost diversity on campuses can increase cross-class interaction substantially and are likely to be very valuable (Opportunity Insights, Social Capital and Economic Mobility). 

Policy initiatives and programs aimed at enhancing opportunities for students to connect and engage with more interest-sharing peers and professionals in STEM fields could help them develop extended social networks that can support their educational and career pathways in STEM. ISTEMSs represent one of the latest comprehensive schoolwide reform models that offer opportunities for students, particularly underrepresented groups, to participate in a STEM-specialized learning environment with interest-sharing peers (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Policymakers and educators can introduce STEM-related materials or activities to the existing well-established student organizations such as Girl Scout STEM Programs and Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) STEM Programs (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

To promote parental engagement in STEM, they must have expanded access to STEM learning resources and activities, especially for those parents without a college degree and those who are not working in STEM fields. Equally important is providing training and professional development in STEM for educators and social service providers, such as public librarians or museum staff, whose tasks involve engaging parents in their children’s learning activities (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Policy initiatives can create and facilitate well-designed mentoring programs that pair students (in particular women, under-represented minorities, low-SES students, and people with disabilities) with STEM educators or professionals who are knowledgeable and passionate about supporting students’ educational and career development. Training and supporting those STEM educators or professionals in providing mentorship can help them be effective mentors for their mentees. Also helpful is partnering schools with industry organizations to offer internships for students to shadow professionals in real-world STEM settings (Leveraging Social Capital to Broaden Participation in STEM).

Individuals have the oral, written, nonverbal, and listening skills required for success in school and at work (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of students demonstrating proficiency on assessments such as the following: The Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+) or Success Skills Assessment (SSA+) for postsecondary students that measure critical thinking, problem solving, and written communications; The HEIghten Outcomes Assessment for Written Communication (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Individuals have the problem solving, critical thinking, and decision-making skills needed in the workplace. Higher-order thinking (also referred to as critical thinking, problem solving, or decision making) is consistently ranked as one of the most in-demand workforce readiness competencies by employers across industries (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of students demonstrating proficiency on assessments such as the College and Career Readiness Assessment (CCRA+), an assessment for grades 6–12 that measures critical thinking, problem solving, and written communications (Education-to-Workforce).

Teachers use a variety of question types to gauge students’ understanding. When gauging students’ learning in math class, it’s essential to ask a variety of questions that encourage critical thinking, communication, and reflection. Open-ended questions can help you understand students’ thought processes and identify areas where they may need additional support. Probing questions can uncover students’ thought patterns and help you diagnose misconceptions. Higher-order thinking questions can assess students’ ability to apply mathematical concepts to real-life scenarios and make connections to broader mathematical ideas. Self-reflection questions can help students identify their own strengths and weaknesses and develop a growth mindset. Modeling and visualizing questions can encourage students to think creatively and develop their spatial reasoning skills. Finally, discussion and connection questions can foster a sense of community and help students see the relevance of math to their everyday lives. By mixing up the types of questions you ask, you can get a more comprehensive picture of your students’ understanding and provide targeted support to help them deepen their learning (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics).