When young people secure work that pays a living wage, offers benefits, builds skills and provides purpose, they gain a trajectory toward long-term stability and opportunity. Communities can make this possible by aligning workforce systems, expanding access to internships and apprenticeships, engaging employers and ensuring every young person has the support and connections they need to launch a rewarding career.
This is part 9 of StriveTogether’s Cradle-to-Career Outcomes Playbook: Employment. The playbook synthesizes research and practical guidance communities can use to improve postsecondary completion.
Young people living in neighborhoods with ample resources and access to public services like healthcare, healthy foods and financial aid tend to perform better academically.
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Learn how to get the most value out of the Employment Playbook by reviewing the below resource.
Question 15: Do K-12 systems make sufficient contributions to academic growth for students?
Why it matters
K–12 systems that drive real academic growth lay the foundation for students to access quality jobs and move up economically. Stronger cognitive skills are consistently linked to higher individual earnings and broader economic growth (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2008). At the student level, having a high–value-added teacher who raises achievement increases college attendance and earnings and reduces teen parenthood, demonstrating that gains in learning translate into later labor-market advantages (Chetty, Friedman & Rockoff, 2014). Adequate, sustained school resources also matter: increases in per-pupil spending boost adult wages and lower poverty, especially for children from low-income families (Jackson, Johnson & Persico, 2016). And at the community level, places with higher-quality K–12 schools show greater intergenerational mobility, underscoring education’s role in expanding opportunity (Chetty, Hendren, Kline & Saez, 2014).
Access to preschool: High-quality pre-K jump-starts children’s language, early math and social skills, leading to smoother kindergarten entry and higher achievement through the early grades (Phillips et al., 2017; Magnuson & Duncan, 2016; Ansari, 2018). In state-funded programs, children who completed pre-K arrived at kindergarten with clearly stronger vocabulary, problem-solving and print awareness than near-age peers who had not yet attended (Barnett et al., 2018). Benefits are largest for children in poverty, though middle-income children also gain most of the same short-term academic advantages — so expanding access both lifts overall achievement and advances opportunity (Ansari, 2018; Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
School economic diversity: Decades of research show that a school’s socioeconomic composition powerfully predicts student outcomes. Since the Coleman Report, studies find that peer and school context — especially concentrated poverty — depresses achievement beyond individual family poverty or background (Coleman, 1966; Borman & Dowling, 2010; Mickelson, 2018). A meta-analysis confirms that school-level SES effects on achievement exceed student-level effects (Sirin, 2005) and the poverty–achievement relationship is even stronger in medium- to high-poverty schools (Goodlad & Keating, 1990). Mechanisms include less experienced or uncertified teachers, higher turnover, weaker facilities and materials and fewer advanced courses in socioeconomically segregated schools (Orfield et al., 2014; Henneberger et al., 2019; USGAO, 2018). Because racial and socioeconomic segregation are tightly linked — and Black and Latine students are disproportionately in high-poverty schools — diversifying schools is central to improving opportunity and outcomes (Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Frankenberg, 2009; Mickelson, 2018; Reardon, 2016).
Preparation for college: College readiness spans four facets — aspirations and beliefs, academic preparation, knowledge and information and fortitude/resilience (Kurlaender, Reed, & Hurtt, 2019). It strongly predicts later outcomes, including college performance and completion (Chingos, 2018; Destin, 2018). Academic preparation — rigorous coursework, higher GPAs and strong test performance — raises the likelihood of enrollment and success; SAT/ACT and state tests predict college grades, though GPA is the stronger predictor of completion and taking more advanced math in 9th–10th grade increases high school graduation and four-year attendance even after controlling for background (Chingos, 2018; Fina, Dunbar, & Welch, 2018; Long, Conger, & Iatarola, 2012). Readiness also depends on mindsets and motivation: peer learning, role models and goal-focused counseling support persistence (Destin, 2018; Kurlaender, Reed, & Hurtt, 2019). Finally, practical know-how matters — students lacking clear information about applications and financial aid are less likely to enroll (Kless, Soland, & Santiago, 2013).
Digital access: Digital access is now essential — 93% of U.S. adults use the internet — yet large gaps persist for low-income households, people of color, rural and tribal communities and people with disabilities (Pew Research Center 2024; Atske & Perrin 2021a, 2021b; Vogels 2021a, 2021b; White House 2021; Wilson, Wallin, & Reiser 2003; Wodajo & Kimmel 2013). For students, disparities are stark: about one-third of Black, Latine and American Indian/Alaska Native children lack high-speed home internet (All4Ed 2020; Ujifusa 2020). Device access is limited too —1% have no internet-connected device and 14% have only one (often a smartphone), patterns concentrated among lower-income families and students of color (Moore, Vitale, & Stawinoga 2018). These gaps constrain instruction and deepen inequities in learning and employment; roughly 70% of teachers assign internet-dependent homework, creating a “homework gap” for students without reliable access (FCC 2009; McLaughlin 2016; Gorski & Clark 2001).
Contributing factor | Key source: E-W Framework
Access to quality public pre-K
Share of 3- and 4-year-old children enrolled in nursery school or preschool. Higher rates of parent-reported enrollment suggest that residents have access to crucial early education opportunities in a community (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
Average annual improvement in English Language Arts. This metric captures the impact or quality of the schools children attend, using nationally standardized state assessments for English Language Arts from third through eighth grade (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Average annual improvement in Middle Grades Math and High School Graduation, disaggregated (Strive Together).
Question 16: Do young people live in well-resourced neighborhoods?
Why it matters
Living in well-resourced neighborhoods is critical for young people’s long-term health, education and economic mobility. Research shows that access to safe, economically inclusive and environmentally healthy communities — where schools are well-funded, opportunities are integrated and trauma and crime exposure are low — predicts higher graduation rates, college attendance and adult earnings (Chetty et al., 2016; Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative). Conversely, concentrated poverty, racial segregation and environmental hazards erode stability and belonging, limit opportunity and perpetuate inequities across generations.
Community economic inclusion: Community conditions powerfully shape health, education and employment. Concentrated poverty and rising class-based segregation erode stability and belonging and are linked to higher teen pregnancy, joblessness and school dropout (Massey, Gross, & Shibuya, 1994; Mijs & Roe, 2021). By 2017, 40% of low-income children attended schools where at least 75% of students were poor; these contexts offer weaker peer norms and academic supports, depressing graduation and four-year college enrollment (Boser & Baffour, 2017; Palardy, 2013). Economic segregation widens attainment gaps for low-income students (Mayer, 2002) and creates a spatial mismatch between jobs and jobseekers that elevates unemployment in low-SES neighborhoods (Mouw, 2000). Mobility evidence shows that moving to higher-opportunity areas raises college attendance and earnings — effects that grow with each additional year of exposure — and improves adult well-being (Chetty, Hendren, & Katz, 2016; Chetty & Hendren, 2018; Ludwig et al., 2013). These patterns underscore the need for community economic inclusion strategies that reduce concentrated poverty and integrate neighborhoods and schools (Fiscella & Williams, 2004; Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Neighborhood racial diversity: Neighborhood racial segregation entrenches exclusion and blocks the cross-racial ties that build belonging and opportunity. Segregation by race and income concentrates poverty (Quillian, 2012) and reflects a legacy of discriminatory policies like redlining that produced persistent hardship and high segregation for Black communities (Massey & Denton, 1993). Compared with white households at similar incomes, Black households are more likely to live in higher-poverty, lower-education neighborhoods and to experience downward neighborhood mobility — moves from lower- to higher-poverty areas — patterns tied to racial wealth gaps (Quick & Kahlenberg, 2019). Segregation across neighborhoods, schools and networks limits Black youths’ human-capital development and depresses adult outcomes (Hardaway & McLoyd, 2009). It also aligns with stark asset disparities: white families hold about 10× the wealth of Black families and over 8× that of Latine families; Black entrepreneurs face weaker access to capital; and homes in predominantly Black neighborhoods are undervalued while predominantly white enclaves command premiums (Loh, Coes, & Buthe, 2020). Reducing neighborhood racial segregation is therefore central to economic inclusion and mobility (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Environmental quality: Environmental quality powerfully shapes health and upward mobility. Low-income communities and people of color face disproportionate exposure to air pollution, toxic waste, extreme heat and disaster risk; nearby hazardous sites and coal impoundments correlate with higher poverty and unemployment and remediation is often deprioritized (Greenberg, 2016; Margai, 2004; Taylor, 2014). These hazards magnify disaster impacts — lower-income households suffer greater housing and income losses and hourly workers are least able to maintain earnings during crises (Fothergill & Peek, 2004; Hallegatte et al., 2020). Early-life pollution also depresses long-term outcomes: lower prenatal/early exposure predicts higher test scores and adult earnings, while higher birth-year particulates reduce low-income children’s eventual income ranks and labor-force participation (Sanders, 2012; O’Brien et al., 2018; Isen, Rossin-Slater, & Walker, 2017). Reducing environmental hazards and improving the built environment is therefore a core mobility strategy (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Safety from Trauma: Exposure to trauma in childhood disrupts brain and social-emotional development — undermining attachment, emotion regulation, agency and self-efficacy — and is linked to lasting mental health challenges and poorer school outcomes (Romano et al., 2015; Staudt, 2001). Empirical reviews find consistent associations between maltreatment and impaired cognitive and language development and lower academic achievement (Veltman & Browne, 2001). Adolescents with early physical trauma show markedly higher rates of aggression, anxiety/depression, dissociation, delinquency, PTSD and social withdrawal — on average about twice those of non-maltreated peers — and experience more absences and suspensions (Lansford et al., 2002). In short, trauma threatens students’ learning and long-term well-being, making safety and trauma-informed supports essential to educational and life outcomes (Romano et al., 2015).
Safety from crime: Safety from crime underpins educational, psychological and economic success. Higher neighborhood crime — both perceived and actual — elevates stress, depression, anxiety, PTSD and delinquency; witnessing or experiencing violence is a strong predictor of adolescent violence (Curry, Latkin, & Davey-Rothwell, 2008; Berman et al., 1996; Kelly, 2010). Moving to lower-poverty, lower-crime areas reduces youth violent-crime arrests, with especially large overall arrest declines for young women (Kling, Ludwig, & Katz, 2005). Exposure is widespread — about 60% of children encounter violence in a year — and is linked to substance use, chronic disease and socioemotional problems that hinder school and work (Finkelhor et al., 2009; Langton & Truman, 2014). Harms are unequal: men of color face greater exposure and higher community violence is tied to behavior problems and lower achievement among Black children (Berton & Stabb, 1996; Thompson & Massat, 2005). Property and financial crimes also erode trust and stability, with U.S. costs estimated at $390 billion in 2017 (AuCoin & Beauchamp, 2004; Miller et al., 2021).
Just policing: Just policing supports economic mobility, community trust and people’s sense of agency, while punitive practices (e.g., frequent stops and stop-and-frisk) are linked to anxiety, trauma and institutional disengagement. National data show that increased police visibility and enforcement reduce public confidence — one additional arrest per officer predicts a 1.5% drop — undermining informal social order (Hauser & Kleck, 2017; Sampson, 1990). In New York City, police contact among young men is associated with trauma and anxiety and neighborhoods with more frisks and use-of-force report higher psychological distress among men (Geller et al., 2014; Sewell, Jefferson, & Lee, 2016). Prior criminal-justice contact also triggers “system avoidance,” lowering engagement with medical, financial, labor-market and educational institutions (Brayne, 2014).
Contributing factor | Key source: E-W Framework
Neighborhood economic diversity
Share of people experiencing poverty who live in high-poverty neighborhoods. A high-poverty neighborhood is where more than 40% of residents are experiencing poverty. This metric reflects the extent of economic segregation in a community (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
The concentration of poverty within a city or county. percentage of city or county residents experiencing poverty who live in a high-poverty neighborhood (defined as a neighborhood in which more than 40% of residents experience poverty). (Education-to-Workforce).
Percentage of children under age 6 living in neighborhoods in which more than 20% of the population lives in poverty (Rhode Island Kids Count).
Concentration of Poverty Block (Neighborhood Poverty): Based on 2000 U.S. Census information on the block group in which students lived on two reverse-coded indicators: (1) the log of the percentage of male residents over age 18 employed one or more weeks during the year and (2) the log of the percentage of families above the poverty line (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future).
Percentage of city or county residents experiencing poverty who live in a high-poverty neighborhood (defined as a neighborhood in which more than 40% of residents experience poverty) (Education-to-Workforce Framework).
Percentage of families who have lived in poverty for two generations or more (Brookings Institute).
Share of residents experiencing poverty who live in high-poverty neighborhoods. Economic segregation excludes families with low incomes from well-resourced and opportunity-rich neighborhoods, undermines their sense of belonging and creates neighborhoods of concentrated poverty and distress, which damage their children’s long-term prospects (Urban Institute).
ImpactTulsa’s Child Equity Index: ImpactTulsa is a collective impact organization in the StriveTogether Cradle to Career Network that works with local partners in the Tulsa, Oklahoma area to advance more equitable outcomes. The Child Equity Index, a data tool developed by ImpactTulsa in partnership with Tulsa Public Schools, aims to help partners better understand the landscape of opportunity and systemic inequities in the Tulsa area. The index uses more than 40 indicators to measure environmental conditions across six domains of influence: (1) student-level factors, (2) neighborhood health, (3) neighborhood socioeconomic status, (4) neighborhood safety, (5) neighborhood pride and custodianship and (6) neighborhood access. The index uses student addresses to attach “place-based” measures to neighborhood environments, defined using census tract and zip code geographic boundaries. The index also uses a Neighborhood Model to measure the relationship between environmental conditions and students’ academic outcomes. Findings from the Child Equity Index have sparked conversation about systemic inequities in Tulsa and have translated into action for students and families. For example, when Internet access maps by census tract revealed inequities in access for low-income communities and communities of color, local school districts adjusted their remote learning strategies and their partners launched a City of Tulsa Internet Access Taskforce. (Education-to-Workforce).
Contributing factor | Key source: E-W Framework
Neighborhood juvenile arrests
Rate of juvenile arrests by city or county (number of arrests per 100,000 residents) (Education-to-Workforce).
Minority youth who experience contact with the criminal justice system. A study in the American Sociological Review has shown aggressive policing can lower educational performance for black boys. These findings provide evidence that the consequences of policing extend into key domains of social life, with implications for the educational trajectories of minority youth and social inequality more broadly (Aggressive Policing and the Educational Performance of Minority Youth).
High school graduation rate and adult incarceration rate of youth who have ever been incarcerated. Estimates based on over 35,000 juvenile offenders over a ten-year period from a large urban county in the US suggest that juvenile incarceration results in large decreases in the likelihood of high school completion and large increases in the likelihood of adult incarceration (National Bureau of Economic Research).
Examining juvenile arrest rates by type of offense (for example, drug abuse violation, curfew and loitering, disorderly conduct, etc.) can also help data users better understand community dynamics and inequities in policing (Education-to-Workforce).
Examine data on post-arrest handling of juvenile cases (For example, users could examine whether youth are referred to juvenile court after arrest or diverted from formal court processing (Education-to-Workforce).
Restorative justice practices engage youth in repairing harm to victims, communities, or both, through actions such as restitution, community service, victim mediation and family conferencing (The Justice Center: Council of State Governments).
Proportion of children with a parent or guardian who has served time in jail (Data source: Health Resources and Services Administration) (StriveTogether 2021).
Rate of violent felonies and property felonies by city or county (number of incidents per 100,000 residents). (Education-to-Workforce).
Rates of reported violent crime and property crime. Exposure to crime, even if one is not a direct victim, can contribute to stress, depression and anxiety in youth and adults and teens who are exposed to high levels of violent crime are more likely to engage in criminal activity themselves. (Data source: Federal Bureau of Investigation) (StriveTogether 2021) (Urban Institute).
Rate of juvenile justice arrests (Data source: Federal Bureau of Investigation) (StriveTogether 2021).
Numbers of reported property crimes and reported violent crimes per 100,000 people. This metric uses the numbers of reported property and violent crimes to measure community safety levels (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Neighborhood exposure index, or share of a person’s neighbors who are people of other races and ethnicities (Data source: American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).
Proportion of community residents who are immigrants (Data source: National Equity Atlas) (StriveTogether 2021).
Ratio of the share of local elected officials of a racial or ethnic group to the share of residents of the same racial or ethnic group (Data sources: American Community Survey; local elections data) (StriveTogether 2021).
Share of the voting-eligible population who are registered to vote and share who turn out to vote (Data source: Census) (StriveTogether 2021).
Index of people’s exposure to neighbors of different races and ethnicities. Racially and ethnically diverse neighborhoods are hallmarks of inclusive communities. This metric calculates separately for each racial or ethnic group the average share of that group’s neighbors who are members of other racial or ethnic groups (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Racial diversity: Neighborhood exposure index, or share of a person’s neighbors who are people of other races and ethnicities (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
Air quality. Carcinogenic, respiratory and neurological toxins in the air can harm people’s health. A higher value for this metric indicates better air quality and lower exposure to toxins (Urban Institute).
Juvenile arrests per 100,000 juveniles. High number of arrests among young people, ages 10 to 17, is a strong indicator of elevated criminal legal system involvement and over policing. This metric includes arrests for any crime or status offense (Urban Institute).
Creating community responder or co-responder programs for nonviolent emergencies, such as mental health or behavioral crises, domestic disputes, traffic safety issues and homelessness (Urban Institute).
Creating diversion programs and other alternatives to arrest, trial and incarceration (Urban Institute).
Minimizing the use of over-policing strategies, including stop-and-frisk, pretextual and non-safety-related traffic stops and “broken windows” policing (Urban Institute).
Shifting funding from police departments to other local agencies where appropriate, such as funding programs in schools to address truancy instead of relying on police officers to enforce truancy laws (Urban Institute).
Shifting toward evidence-based policing, in partnership with communities (Urban Institute).
Supporting greater police accountability, including by publishing data on police misconduct and use of force, advocating for the reform of qualified immunity and creating civilian oversight boards that operate independently of law enforcement agencies (Urban Institute).
Contributing factor
Political participation and representation
Ratio of the share of local, elected officials of a racial or ethnic group to the share of residents of the same group. Political scientists commonly use this metric to capture the extent to which racial and ethnic groups are represented by their community’s elected leaders (Urban Institute).
Share of the voting-age population who turns out to vote. Voter turnout is a well-established and broadly available reflection of political engagement in a community (Urban Institute).
Number of membership associations per 10,000 people and ratio of Facebook friends with higher socioeconomic status to Facebook friends with lower socioeconomic status. Social networks help connect people across lines of income, education and identity, enabling them to share information and other resources that support well-being, connect to opportunities for advancement and strengthen feelings of belonging (Urban Institute).
Adopting direct democracy practices, such as participatory budgeting, to empower community members and encourage them to participate in local governance (Urban Institute).
Creating public financing systems for local elections (Urban Institute).
Reducing barriers to voting, including by automatically registering voters, expanding the number of voting sites and their voting hours and offering additional options, such as mail-in, early and absentee voting (Urban Institute).
Restoring voting rights to formerly incarcerated people (Urban Institute).
Scheduling local elections to coincide with state or national elections, which can lead to a more representative electorate (Urban Institute).
Scheduling local elections to coincide with state or national elections (Urban Institute).
Strengthening and diversifying the local government workforce, including by investing in hiring, recruitment, training and compensation (Urban Institute).
Strengthening civics education courses in schools (Urban Institute).
Supporting labor unions and the right to organize (Urban Institute).
Switching from at-large to district elections, adopting proportional representation systems and moving to choice voting or cumulative voting systems to make local governments more representative of their constituents (Urban Institute).
Contributing factor
Community resources
Creating local community resource maps, such as The Commit Partnership’s Community Resource and Asset Map (The Commit Partnership).
United Way 211, a free help line for people to find resources, support and services in their local community (United Way).
Promotoras are community health workers who serve as liaisons between their communities and health and social providers, particularly with Hispanic/Latino communities. They are trusted members of the community who share common language, culture and lived experiences to those they serve (MHP Salud).
GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs): The federal program is a comprehensive intervention program and is tasked with equalizing access to higher education for low- income students. The GEAR UP grantees are charged with establishing partnerships among school districts, colleges and other organizations to operate the projects; and states and partnerships are awarded six- year grants to provide the services at high- poverty middle and high schools (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).
Upward Bound: One of the largest and longest running federal programs, Upward Bound is “designed to generate skills and motivation necessary for success in education beyond high school among young people from low- income backgrounds and inadequate secondary school preparation” (Public Law 90- 222, December 23, 1967) (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).
Talent Search: The Talent Search program was created in 1965 as one of the original federal TRIO programs, which also includes Upward Bound (discussed in the previous section). The program is designed to help low- income, first generation college students prepare for and gain access to college by providing information on the types of high school courses students should take to prepare for college and on the financial aid available to pay for college. The program also helps students complete financial aid applications and navigate the college application process. (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).
Project GRAD: First launched in Houston, Texas, Project Graduation Really Achieves Dreams (Project GRAD) is designed to improve academic achievement, high school graduation rates and rates of college attendance for low- income students. It does this by first trying to help students arrive at high school better prepared academically by implementing a specific reading and math curricula, along with enhanced professional development for teachers, at the elementary and middle school levels. At the high school level, Project GRAD offers special academic counseling and summer academic enrichment and a college scholarship (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).
AVID: The Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) Program targets students in fifth through twelfth grade with the hope of helping students who are capable of completing a rigorous curriculum but currently fall short of their potential. Many of AVID’s students are from low- income or minority families. To improve outcomes, AVID attempts to enroll students in more challenging classes, including honors and advanced placement (AP) courses. Students also enroll in the AVID elective, in which they learn organizational and study skills, work on critical thinking and get academic help from peers and college tutors (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).
Puente Project: The Puente Project is an outreach program with the goal of increasing the number of educationally disadvantaged students who enroll in four year institutions, earn degrees and return to the community as mentors. Although it services all kinds of students, Puente targets Latino students in particular as an original goal was to increase the number of Latino students attending the University of California. The program includes a rigorous counseling component in which participants meet with trained community members. Students must also meet at least monthly with teachers and advisors to discuss challenges and life choices. Their parents must also sign a statement agreeing to support the student and attend necessary meetings (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).
Safety from trauma
Deaths caused by injury per 100,000 people. These deaths both reflect and cause trauma in a community. They include planned deaths (e.g., homicides or suicides) and unplanned deaths (e.g., from motor vehicle and other accidents) (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Question 17: Do young people have access to public support (i.e., health care access, nutrition programs, economic support, etc.)?
Why it matters
Access to public support programs significantly influences college students’ ability to graduate by mitigating economic hardships and fostering stable, supportive environments conducive to learning and staying focused on early career success.
Programs such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) provide essential financial resources to low-income families. These supports alleviate economic stress, enabling parents to better meet their children’s basic needs and invest in their education. Studies have shown that access to cash assistance and income supports correlates with increased high school and college graduation rates, as well as higher overall educational attainment (Urban Institute).
Access to affordable housing: Access to affordable, stable housing is foundational. Residential stability supports psychological well-being and enables people to invest in relationships, community, health and education (Desmond & Gershenson 2016). Compared with other renters and homeowners, rent-burdened households face higher eviction rates, greater financial fragility and heavier reliance on safety-net programs (Pew Charitable Trusts 2018). Stability and homeownership are linked to higher student achievement and children in higher-quality neighborhoods do better educationally (Vandivere et al. 2006). Higher rent burdens correlate with poorer self-reported health and delayed medical care (Meltzer & Schwartz 2015) and with childhood obesity (Nobari et al. 2019). Falling behind on rent is associated with worse caregiver health and maternal depression, more child hospitalizations and health problems and broader material hardship (Sandel et al. 2018). Children in rent-burdened households have lower health ratings, are retained more often and exhibit more behavioral problems than peers in stable housing (Aratani et al. 2011; Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Housing stability: Housing stability matters: eviction sets off cascading harms across work, neighborhoods and health. Workers who have been evicted are 15% more likely to be laid off (Desmond 2016). Housing instability often pushes families into lower-income, higher-crime areas with fewer employment opportunities (Desmond 2016; Kull, Coley, & Lynch 2016). Homeownership reduces residential moves and frequent moves are linked to lower child cognitive and social functioning, higher maternal psychological distress and greater parenting stress (Desmond 2016). After an eviction, renters are 25% more likely to face long-term housing instability, which is associated with barriers to care and increased emergency-department use (Desmond 2016; Kushel et al. 2006). The broader toll is stark: suicides tied to evictions and foreclosures doubled from 2005 to 2010 (Desmond 2016) and — controlling for sociodemographics and prior health — people who moved for cost reasons in the previous three years were nearly 2.5 times as likely to report an anxiety attack (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Transportation access: Transportation access underpins access to jobs, education, health care and child care — supporting economic success, autonomy and belonging. Limited or distant transit access is linked to higher unemployment; in New York City, neighborhoods with insufficient transit had a 12.6% unemployment rate versus 8.1% in transit-rich areas (Kaufman et al. 2015) and transportation barriers more broadly hinder employment (Fletcher et al. 2010). Across cities, better transit access is associated with a lower likelihood of receiving public assistance (Sanchez, Shen, & Peng 2004). Yet even where transit exists, routes and schedules may not match destinations or non-peak shifts common in entry-level work (Sanchez 1999; Sanchez 2008). A federal review found 70% of entry-level jobs are in suburbs and only 32% lie within a quarter-mile of transit (GAO 1998) and costs (e.g., commuter rail fares) can further limit use for low-income workers (Sanchez 2008). Vehicle access improves job opportunities (Andersson et al. 2018; APTA 2019); one study found strong positive employment effects from car access while transit access showed no effect (Blumenberg & Pierce 2017). Shorter commutes are also tied to long-term mobility: places with more very short commutes see better adult outcomes for children and a one–standard deviation reduction in childhood commute times is associated with a 7% increase in adult earnings (Chetty & Hendren 2018; Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Access to health services: Access to health services — especially having a usual source of care — improves prevention and reduces avoidable hospital use. Children with a usual source of care have fewer unmet medical, dental and prescription needs; fewer delays or problems getting treatment; and fewer difficulties seeing specialists — even among the insured (Devoe et al. 2012). Better access is linked to lower hospitalization for ambulatory care–sensitive conditions such as asthma, hypertension, heart failure, COPD and diabetes (Bindman et al. 1995). Adults with a usual source of care receive preventive services earlier (pap smears, breast exams, mammograms), improving health and reducing stress and costs (Ettner 1996; Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative). By strengthening physical health, access also bolsters people’s sense of power and autonomy.
Contributing factor | Key source: E-W Framework
Access to affordable housing
Number of affordable and available housing units per 100 households with low, very low and extremely low incomes. This metric reflects the extent of housing options for households with low incomes. Housing is considered affordable when monthly costs fall at or below 30% of a household’s income(Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Number and share of public-school children who are ever homeless during the school year. This metric reflects levels of housing instability in a community. Homelessness is defined as living with others because of housing loss or economic hardship; living in shelters, transitional housing and unsheltered locations; or living in motels or hotels because of a lack of other accommodations (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).
Renter experience: Reasons for renting, including the following responses: Can’t afford down payment for a house; More convenient or flexible to rent; Can’t afford mortgage monthly payment; Renting is less financially risky; Cheaper to rent; Can’t qualify for home mortgage; Prefer to rent; Trying to buy (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).
Percentage of residential units that are unoccupied, or vacant, in a given year, disaggregated by rentals and homeownership (US Census Bureau).
Average age of housing stock, which helps communities isolate potential issues, like exposure to asbestos and/or lead paint and connect people to resources (US Census Bureau, American Community Survey).
Students experiencing housing instability and changing schools as a result (Data sources: Local SEA, LEA or school records or analysis) (StriveTogether 2021).
Number of students experiencing housing instability that requires changing schools(StriveTogether 2021).
Number and share of public school children who are ever homeless during the school year. Housing instability and homelessness represent extreme manifestations of powerlessness and the loss of dignity and belonging, disrupting family stability and undermining both physical and emotional health (Urban Institute).
Living arrangements: Types of household living arrangements reported (i.e. living with spouse/partner, with adult children under age 18, with adult children, with parents, with brothers or sisters, with other relatives, with other non-relatives, living with someone else) (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).
Neighborhood satisfaction: Percent of adults who were satisfied with characteristics of their neighborhood: quality of local schools, crime risk, natural disaster and severe weather risk, cost of housing (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).
Natural disaster risks: Percent of adults reporting being financially affected by natural disasters or severe weather events such as flooding, hurricanes, wildfires, or extreme temperatures (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).
There is sufficient availability of affordable housing for the number of families with low incomes in an area (city or county). (Education-to-Workforce).
Percentage of eligible households receiving federal rental assistance. (Education-to-Workforce).
Number of affordable and available housing units per 100 households with low, very low and extremely low incomes. This metric reflects the extent of housing options for households with low incomes. Housing is considered affordable when monthly costs fall at or below 30% of a household’s income (Urban Institute).
Ratio of (1) the number of affordable housing units to (2) the number of households with low and very low incomes in an area (city or county). Housing units are defined as affordable if the monthly costs do not exceed 30% of a household’s income. Households with low incomes are defined as those earning below 80% of area median income (AMI) and very low-income households are defined as those earning below 50% of AMI. (Education-to-Workforce).
Environmental racism, as measured by air quality index (StriveTogether 2021).
Environmental racism, as measured by environmental health hazards (StriveTogether 2021).
Level of public investment in neighborhoods as measured through programs like Opportunity Zones, Community Development Blocks and tax credits (StriveTogether).
Share of people experiencing poverty who live in high-poverty neighborhoods. A high-poverty neighborhood is where more than 40% of residents are experiencing poverty. This metric reflects the extent of economic segregation in a community (Urban Institute).
Balancing resident needs with inspector capacity: Initiatives focused on maintaining safe and healthy housing typically engage both property owners and tenants and in many cases, housing inspectors. These programs intend to ensure that existing affordable homes remain safe, healthy and high-quality. They typically address common home health hazards, which often fall into one of two major categories: physical injury/safety risks (i.e. unstable staircases or broken handrails) and illness-inducing hazards (such as lead paint, mold, pests, carbon monoxide, etc.). (Results for America).
Healthy home environment assessments: Professional home inspections evaluating environmental health risks (Results for America).
Proactive inspections to help maintain safe and healthy housing. The foundation of many effective programs is a more strategic deployment of a jurisdiction’s home inspection capacity. Oftentimes, this includes using data analysis to identify high-risk blocks or neighborhoods and then sending inspectors to walk those areas, conduct visual exterior assessments, speak to residents and schedule proactive inspections (Results for America).
Raising tenant and landlord awareness about maintaining safe and healthy housing. Many successful programs include a robust education component — often run by inspectors — to help landlords and tenants identify home hazards and other threats to home safety. This can include written materials, videos and public workshops (for instance, walking through a home to demonstrate an inspection). Such efforts also often include information on how to request a home inspection (Results for America).
Housing rehabilitation loan and grant programs: Funding in the form of loans and/or grants to income-eligible owner-occupants to assist with repair, rehabilitation and/or reconstruction of homes (Results for America).
To ensure property owners have the financial capacity to address home hazards, some programs provide income-eligible property owners with grants and/or loans to assist with repair, rehabilitation and/or reconstruction of homes. Funding is often tied to specific forms of home improvement, such insulation, plumbing or mold removal (Results for America).
Lead paint abatement programs: Programs focused on removing lead-based and contaminated surfaces from homes and other buildings (Results for America).
Adopting rent regulation, eviction prevention, just-cause eviction and right-to-counsel policies to protect tenants (Urban Institute).
Balancing community development with creating opportunities for residents with low income by addressing vacancy and blight; and investing in schools, transportation and job creation (Urban Institute).
Creating affordable homeownership opportunities, including by providing down payment or closing-cost assistance and expanding access to financing, such as through the use of subsidized or shared appreciation (Urban Institute).
Creating more dedicated affordable housing, including by subsidizing affordable housing development, establishing incentives for developers to create affordable units (e.g., density bonuses) and exploring ways to build affordable housing on publicly-owned land (Urban Institute).
Creating permanent supportive housing for individuals and families experiencing chronic homelessness (Urban Institute).
Enacting foreclosure prevention, property tax relief and rehabilitation assistance programs to assist homeowners (Urban Institute).
Expanding affordable housing in resource-rich neighborhoods (Urban Institute).
Increasing the overall housing supply, including by reforming zoning and land-use policies, streamlining permitting processes and creating incentives for developers to build new housing (Urban Institute).
Preserving subsidized and unsubsidized affordable rental housing (Urban Institute).
Providing rental assistance to residents and incentivizing landlords to rent to tenants receiving assistance (Urban Institute).
Reforming property taxes and property assessment processes to ensure that they do not disproportionately burden residents with low incomes (Urban Institute).
Supporting community development in high-poverty neighborhoods, including incomes to move to more resource-rich communities (Urban Institute).
Supporting permanently affordable housing models, such as community land trusts (Urban Institute).
Contributing factor | Key source: E-W Framework
Access to transportation
Transit connectivity index (Data source: Center for Neighborhood Technology) (StriveTogether 2021).
Individuals have access to low-cost and timely transportation to commute to school or work (Education-to-Workforce).
Average travel time to school (Data sources: Local SEA, LEA or school records or analysis) (StriveTogether 2021).
Average travel time to work (Data sources: Center for Neighborhood Technology; American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).
Percentage of workers who commute by walking and by biking (Data sources: Center for Neighborhood Technology; American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).
Trips made to work by mass transit (Data sources: Center for Neighborhood Technology; American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).
Transit trips index. This metric reflects a community’s access to public transportation. It is file-ranked nationally based on the number of public transit trips taken annually by an average household earning 80% of the area median income (Urban Institute).
Transit trips index and transportation cost index. Without accessible transportation options, families may be unable to take advantage of opportunities for work and education, or they may have to trade expensive commutes for other needs and goods (Urban Institute).
Complete Streets approach to ensure the design of streets balance the needs of different modes of transportation, support local land uses, economies, cultures and natural environments (Smart Growth America).
Districts and schools explore transportation solutions to help students living far from school participate in sports or afterschool programs. (Promise Partnership Utah).
The United Way of Central Minnesota notes that a challenge in regards to transportation is that students within 2 miles of the school will not be picked up by the bus. This has students to the extent that some transfer schools twice within a single school year to access transportation during winter months. (United Way of Central Minnesota).
Reducing barriers to using public transportation, including by providing fare subsidies, making systems easy to navigate (e.g., having clear signage and route maps in multiple languages) and centralizing fares across different modes of transportation (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
Availability of public transportation subsidies for students (Data sources: Local SEA, LEA or school records or analysis) (StriveTogether 2021).
Affordable housing within walking distance from public transportation (Data source: Center for Neighborhood Technology) (StriveTogether 2021).
Build housing development near transit, including affordable housing and housing for people with disabilities. Coordinate transportation and housing policy in a manner that simultaneously: (a) increases the number of residents living in close proximity to public transit; (b) fosters walkable communities centered around new and existing transit stations; and (c) preserves and expands affordable housing near these stations. By acting early, local jurisdictions can make the most of opportunities to preserve and create affordable housing as part of the development that takes place around new or planned transit stations. (Urban Institute and Local Housing Solutions).
Neonatal health: Share of low-weight births. Children with low birth weight (less than 5 lbs., 8 oz.) face elevated risks for other future health problems. (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
Number of people per primary care physician. Primary care providers play central roles in the provision of health services. A lower number of residents per physician suggests better access to essential health services in a community (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
Individuals have access to a reliable Internet connection and a personal desktop or laptop computer (Education-to-Workforce).
Percentage of individuals who have both (1) access to at least one desktop or laptop computer owned by someone in the home and (2) reliable broadband Internet (Education-to-Workforce).
Access to internet and computer/devices and technical support (StriveTogether 2021).
Percentage of the community that has access to a desktop or laptop, a smartphone, a tablet or another computer (Data source: American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).
Percentage of households that have broadband internet subscriptions (Data source: American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).
Share of households with a computer and broadband internet subscription in the home. This metric reflects a community’s digital divide by measuring in-home access to a computer and the internet, including DSL, cable modem, cellular data and fiber connections. Without reliable access to online resources, young people and adults are locked out of opportunities to learn, build skills and gain the credentials they need to advance economically (Urban Institute).
Connectivity: Even when learning is in-person, students and their families need internet access, proper equipment and training on utilizing online learning platforms to complete school-based learning and assignments. This access allows for greater access to learning opportunities and also ensures they can obtain learning materials if they must stay home. School districts should determine which students do not have internet access and equipment and determine through partnership with local and state governments, along with community partners how to secure the resources to address gaps. Districts and schools should also assess whether school staff have access to needed technology and equipment and the skills to use them. (Attendance Works, Expanded Metrics).
Technology to support learning and assessment in the classroom and online (Annie E. Casey Foundation).
Local and state coalitions who advocate for access to broadband with city and state officials and by partnering with telecommunications companies (National Council of State Legislatures).
Percentage of eligible units with children under age 18 not receiving SNAP (Desired outcome: Families have access to necessary services through expanded eligibility, reduced administrative burden or programs to identify needs and connect families with services) (Prenatal to 3 Policy Impact Center).
Percentage of individuals with high or marginal food security, as measured by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Food Security Survey Module (Education-to-Workforce Framework).
Percentage of individuals with high or marginal food security, as measured by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Food Security Survey Module (Education-to-Workforce Framework).
Proportion of eligible students participating in the School Breakfast Program (Data source: U.S. Department of Agriculture) (StriveTogether 2021).
Create Food Security: College students who are worried about their next meal are not able to fully engage in their studies. Unfortunately, students who experience food insecurity are often ineligible for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) – a crucial means-tested program that provides a monthly benefit to be used for qualifying food purchases – due to requirements that can present undue barriers for students to access this assistance. Policymakers should make permanent the COVID-era exemption that allows students who would otherwise be eligible for SNAP to receive these benefits by fulfilling the 20-hour work requirement with a combination of work and credit hours. (NCAN, Ensuring Food Security).
States expand access to WIC benefits (e.g., increasing income threshold, extending benefits for postpartum people).
Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP): Allows educational programs in eligible low-income areas to serve a free meal and/or snack to students 18 and younger (No Kid Hungry).
Contributing factor | Key source: E-W Framework
Health insurance coverage
Percentage of individuals with health insurance. This measure captures participation in any insurance program, including those offered by the government (such as CHIP and Medicaid), employers, or community clinics, as well as those that individuals purchase (for example, through Health Insurance Marketplaces). Multiple surveys measure health insurance coverage and can be adapted for use by educational institutions or employers. At the national level, they include the Current Population Survey, Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, National Health Interview Survey and Survey of Income and Program Participation. (Education-to-Workforce).
Percentage of eligible individuals (children or adults) enrolled in Medicaid or CHIP. This information can be used to support families with low incomes in enrolling in these programs. (Education-to-Workforce).
Percent of uninsured U.S. children overall and percentage of uninsured U.S. children who are living in poverty (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).
Percent of children nationally without a medical home. A medical home is a health care setting that patients visit regularly for their primary care needs, building familiarity and consistency with care providers (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).
Ratio of population per primary care physician. Access to health services is essential to both preventive care and treatment of health conditions, enabling people to enjoy the good health that facilitates success in school, work and social relationships (Urban Institute).
Air quality index. Environmental hazards expose people to health risks that threaten their quality of life and may undermine school and work performance (Urban Institute).
Deaths due to injury per 100,000 people. Exposure to trauma affects children’s brain and socioemotional development; undermines people’s feelings of connection, agency and self-efficacy; and interferes with capacities for school and work success (Urban Institute).
The Hope Center Student Basic Needs Survey aims to understand the prevalence of student basic needs in securities on campuses and to provide actionable data for partner institutions (The Hope Center Student Basic Needs Survey).
Impact of benefit cliffs and marginal tax rates on families as they move out of poverty. As earnings increase, the percentage of each additional dollar in income lost through benefit reduction or increased tax liability is called the effective marginal tax rate. An income increase that triggers a loss of public benefits equal to or greater than the dollar value of the income increase (i.e., a marginal tax rate of 100% or higher) is called a benefit cliff. At low earnings levels, refundable tax credits and means-tested transfers result in higher total income after taxes. As earnings rise, however, benefits and tax credits phase out and tax liabilities increase. The specific programs a household participates in, family size and composition and state and local policies influence a household’s phase-out pattern. As a result, those with similar earnings can experience very different marginal tax rates, although such variation is smaller at higher incomes (Institute for Research on Poverty).
The structure of the public welfare system makes it difficult to break out of low-wage work. The net loss of resources that can occur when coming off public assistance acts as a barrier to upward mobility. Three key structural factors contribute to this problem: (a) Income cut-offs that are lower than survival needs; (b) Benefits that end abruptly instead of tapering off (benefits cliffs); (c) Confusing systems where different benefits have different eligibility rules and are administered by different agencies (United Way Greater Cleveland).
Expand outreach to ensure access to affordable, physical, oral and mental health insurance coverage for children and parents (Alliance for Early Success).
Simplify enrollment to ensure access to affordable, physical, oral and mental health insurance coverage for children and parents (Alliance for Early Success).
Eliminate barriers to retention to ensure access to affordable, physical, oral and mental health insurance coverage for children and parents (Alliance for Early Success).
Address health care shortages — both of providers who accept Medicaid/CHIP and of providers who offer specialized care (e.g., dental care, mental health, developmental specialists) (Alliance for Early Success).
Increase access to comprehensive health (medical) homes that identify and respond to the physical, social and emotional determinants of health (Alliance for Early Success).
Prioritize funding for prevention programs, including those delivered outside of traditional medical settings (Alliance for Early Success).
Implement health care data systems to track and improve referral and follow-up services (Alliance for Early Success).
Improve coordination between IDEA Part B and C, primary care and public health programs (Alliance for Early Success).
Access to high-quality, affordable, comprehensive health care (including preventative, acute, emergency and chronic care) for physical, mental and oral health for all families with infants and young children (Annie E. Casey Foundation).
Policies and programs which would increase access to health insurance for children and to improved education for parents, particularly in low-income families, could play an important role in fostering children’s educational success. In families, parents are the first teachers, preparing their children to read simply by talking and reading to them frequently. Parents can be the first to spot health and developmental problems that may lead to reading difficulties. But parents don’t always know what to look for or how to help their children and access to health care is essential. Poverty is strongly associated with lack of health insurance coverage. For example, 10% of people in families with incomes of $50,000 or more are not covered by health insurance, but this jumps 19% for those with family incomes between $25,000 and $49,999 and to 29% for those with family incomes below $25,000. Children in poor families also are more likely than their peers to have parents with limited education, because lower education is associated with earning lower incomes. (Annie E. Casey, Double Jeopardy).
The Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta CLIFF tools to address the problems with benefits cliffs: The public benefits system is notoriously complex, with different benefits administered by separate agencies and structured around different requirements. The confusion and uncertainty about when a wage increase will cause benefits to be lost acts as a barrier to career advancement. To address this problem, the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta has designed the Career Ladder Identifier and Financial Forecaster (CLIFF) tools. This set of tools models the complex interaction of public benefits, taxes and tax credits with career advancement to help people plan a career move away from public benefits. The CLIFF tools help assess the long-term financial implications of a new career, predict when a worker will experience a benefits cliff and map out individualized details of a career move. Because of the differences in benefits requirements, benefit amounts and wages across the country, CLIFF tools must be customized by location. Demo versions are available online and organizations can request access to the full suite (United Way Greater Cleveland).
Expanding Medicaid, under the Affordable Care Act, eligibility significantly increases access to healthcare for low-income families and children. States that expanded Medicaid have seen higher rates of insured children, better access to preventive care and improved health outcomes. States like New Mexico and Oregon have seen significant declines in uninsured rates after expansion (Centennial Care Medicaid; Oregon Health Plan).
Expanding School Based Health Centers allows students to access medical, dental and mental health services in schools. Medicaid reimbursement for SBHC services ensures financial sustainability. Colorado and Maryland use Medicaid billing to fund SBHCs, improving student health and attendance (Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment; Maryland Public Schools).
Continuous eligibility policies for Medicaid and CHIP benefits ensures children maintain Medicaid/CHIP coverage for 12 months, even if family income fluctuates.
Streamlining Medicaid/CHIP enrollment through automatic data matching with other public programs (e.g., SNAP). Reduces paperwork and administrative barriers for families. Louisianauses data-driven auto-enrollment to increase child health coverage rates (Louisiana Department of Health).
Universal child health insurance. In 1998, an Institute of Medicine committee found that “insurance coverage is the major determinant of whether children have access to health care,” and that uninsured children are “most likely to be sick as newborns, less likely to be immunized as preschoolers, less likely to receive medical treatment when they are injured and less likely to receive treatment for illnesses such as acute or recurrent ear infections, asthma and tooth decay.” Other studies have verified that after enrolling in the Children’s Health Insurance Program, children’s unmet health needs fall by 50% or more and their routine health, dental and asthma care improves in terms of both access and quality. Despite gains made under the Affordable Care Act, however, the United States is still far from ensuring that all children have health insurance (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).
Ensure a medical home for every child. A medical home is a health care setting that patients visit regularly for their primary care needs, building familiarity and consistency with care providers. Care typically is provided by a team of practitioners including physicians, medical assistants, nurses, nurse practitioners and care coordinators. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) defines a medical home for infants and children as having well-trained primary care physicians who are known to the child and family, able to develop “a partnership of mutual responsibility and trust,” and able to help manage and facilitate all aspects of pediatric care. Medical homes are especially important for medically underserved children, who often have more “chronic conditions and economic, geographic and psychosocial factors” that combine to aggravate medical problems (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).
Policy changes can reduce “benefit cliffs” and marginal tax rates, but there are trade-offs. Avoiding high marginal tax rates and benefit cliffs may be an important policy goal even if high marginal tax rates and benefit cliffs, themselves, do not produce large behavioral responses. For example, lowering marginal tax rates and smoothing benefit cliffs can help ensure that low-income families see greater resources from working more, a potentially important issue of fairness. Researchers and policymakers have suggested a range of options, from making tax credits and benefits universal, to eliminating credits and benefits and replacing them with wage subsidies. More incremental approaches aim to lessen the blow of marginal tax rates and benefit cliffs, such as holding benefits constant for a transition period, or better coordinating phase-in and phase-out rates across programs. While there is no clear consensus on the best approach, there is agreement that any policy lever would have trade-offs in terms of benefit eligibility and levels, caseload sizes and associated public costs (Institute for Research on Poverty).
Contributing factor
Financial assistance
Rates of financial insecurity by race. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by race. A study by Jobs for the Future found that compared with white students, Black and Latine students were more likely to have needed food, housing, utility and medical assistance. Black students additionally were more likely than white and Latine students to have needed child care assistance. Both Black and Latine students were more likely than white students to have faced difficulty covering a $500 emergency. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).
Rates of financial insecurity by gender. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by gender. A study by Jobs for the Future found that in comparison to men, women were almost two times more likely to report they would struggle to handle a $500 emergency. Additionally, women in the sample indicated a significantly higher likelihood of using welfare services than men: Women were 1.5 times more likely to use food assistance, 1.4 times more likely to use housing assistance, 1.3 times more likely to use utility assistance and 1.6 more likely to use medical care assistance. Among students who were parents, women were two times more likely to require child care assistance. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).
Rates of financial insecurity by parent-status. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by whether the student is a parent. A study by Jobs for the Future found that being a parent had a major impact on the use of welfare assistance across all measures, with use of food assistance 4.6 times higher, use of medical assistance 3.2 times higher and difficulty of covering a $500 emergency 1.5 times higher compared with students who were not parents. The greater financial insecurity of parents was evident within all racial and ethnic groups. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).
Rates of financial insecurity of students based on their grant/scholarship status. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by whether the student relied on grants and scholarships to pay for college. Students relying on grants or scholarships (including Pell grants) were more than two times more likely than those not relying on this method of tuition payment to need food, housing, utility and medical assistance. In addition, students who relied on student loans to pay tuition were more than 2.5 times more likely than other students to be unable to cover a $500 emergency and also more likely than students who did not rely on loans to face more financial insecurity across all the measures. Those students relying on family assistance and personal savings were the least likely to face financial insecurities. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).
Average Education and Occupation Status of Adults (Neighborhood SES): Based on 2000 U.S. Census information on the block group in which students lived on two indicators: (1) the log of the percentage of employed persons 16 years old or older who are managers or executives and (2) the mean level of education among people over 18 (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future).
Student Immigrant Status: Student reported on the 2005 CCSR survey if she was born in the United States and age of immigration (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future).
Work: Students reported on the 2005 CCSR survey how many hours per week was spent working for pay (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future). Findings from student financial wellness surveys. For example,Trellis Strategies’ Student Financial Wellness Survey offers insights into how student’s financial wellness influences success at postsecondary institutions. The survey covers topics including basic needs, financial behaviors, paying for college, perceptions of institutional support and mental health (Student Financial Wellness Survey).
The IHEP Toward Convergence framework explores the advantages and disadvantages of six potential measures of economic status: Pell Grant receipt, Pell Grant eligibility, expected family contribution (EFC), income, poverty status and student’s home location (geocode). It ultimately recommends using Pell Grant receipt as the primary indicator of low-income status. Income is a promising indicator for economic status that should be tested further in the field and explored for inclusion in future iterations of the framework. (IHEP, Toward Convergence).
The IHEP Toward Convergence framework recommends using Pell Grant receipt as the primary indicator of low-income status among college students, despite its known limitations. Pell receipt is the most frequently used measure of economic status in the field and each alternate indicator faces even more substantial limitations than Pell receipt. While Pell receipt is a frequently used proxy for economic status, it is not perfectly accurate. Its primary limitation is that it undercounts the proportion of low-income students, especially at institutions where many do not apply for federal financial aid, due to either lack of information, low costs, or citizenship status. Also, it is subject to changes in federal financial aid policy, sometimes causing notable shifts that may not actually reflect demographic shifts. However, Pell receipt remains the primary indicator of economic status used by the field, is fairly comprehensive of low-income students and takes into consideration important factors that influence financial need, such as family size. (IHEP, Toward Convergence).
Institutions can use economic status to disaggregate other metrics and gain a better understanding of how low-income students are accessing and succeeding in their colleges or universities. Low-income students face different challenges in higher education than do middle- and high-income students, so it is crucial that institutions have access to disaggregated data to identify gaps and to tailor solutions and financial aid strategies for the neediest students. Recent research confirms that some institutions serve low-income populations more effectively than others, so institutions can use these data to continuously improve student access and success.
State and federal policymakers often express interest in understanding how low-income students access, progress through and succeed in higher education. At the federal level specifically, policymakers are interested in the outcomes of low-income students and a recent Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) proposal includes Outcome Measures for Pell Grant recipients.
Student Basic Needs Centers: Over the past 10 years, colleges, especially public and community, have stepped in to provide and connect students in need with supports. One national survey found that 74% of the responding institutions had some kind of emergency aid program in place for their students. Consolidating these services through Basic Needs Centers located on college campuses and accessed virtually can make it easier for students to apply for an array of financial, food, child care, housing, transportation and other assistance in “one shop.” One of the biggest challenges with these centers, however, is their low utilization rate. Some research suggests that utilization rates rise when students are provided nudging in the form of email or text messages about services in ways that are not stigmatizing (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).
United Way’s SparkPoint centers help families meet basic needs, increase income, build credit, grow savings and reduce debt. The centers’ financial coaches work one-on-one with clients to set goals, create action plans and stay accountable. By focusing on strengths and long-term stability, SparkPoint empowers low-income families to achieve lasting financial well-being — all at no cost to participants (United Way).
Federal, state and local assistance for students facing financial hardships: Systems and policies of financial support for students have not kept pace with the “new economics of college.” Unlike in the past, when four-year colleges largely admitted young white students from middle income or higher families, the good news today is that there are many more people from low-income families attending college who are also older adults, workers and caregivers. However, although the demographics of students have shifted, college costs have risen, minimum wages have stagnated and inflationary pressures have driven up the costs of food and housing. Students from low-income families are more likely than other students to depend on loans, grants and scholarships to help cover the expenses of attending college. But as this and other research shows, these kinds of financial assistance are inadequate, leaving too many students hungry, homeless and unable to pay basic expenses including medical and child care. Unfortunately, outdated rules currently exclude many students from participating in federal food and housing assistance programs. And even among those who qualify, the uptake of benefits has been low. In 2018, for example, the U.S. Department of Agriculture found that only 2.6% of eligible students were receiving SNAP food assistance compared with 85% of those in the population as a whole who were eligible for this program. Additional research has found that housing assistance programs also sometimes limit student eligibility. For postsecondary education to be accessible and feasible for all students, the “new economics of education” will require systems of assistance that better meet student need and increase accessibility (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).
National data on postsecondary student financial wellness — the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study — are limited. The NPSAS, which surveys students about how they finance their education, is administered only every three to four years. Data about student financial wellness are not collected in the survey but gathered mainly through interviews, which results in a much more limited sample. To better monitor student financial well-being and address gaps, annual institutional-level financial well-being data are needed. With this kind of data, institutions can assess student financial insecurity over time, link financial insecurity measures to outcomes to assist policy and program development and evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policy changes (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).
Question 18: Do young people live in communities with local governments that are attentive to the needs of all community members and with residents who are engaged in collective decision making?
Why it matters
Young people do better in communities where local governments listen to all residents and where neighbors help shape decisions. Civic participation builds “collective efficacy,” which is linked to safer neighborhoods and stronger conditions for youth development (Sampson, Robert J. et al). When residents vote, meet and organize, officials are more responsive and public goods are delivered more equitably — core lessons from the civic voluntarism tradition (Verba, Schlozoman and Burns, 2003). Descriptive representation also matters: when elected bodies include members who share constituents’ identities, trust and engagement rise and policy attention to those communities increases (NBER). Election rules that broaden participation (e.g., aligning local with national election calendars) further improve representativeness and accountability (University of Chicago Press). Together, responsive local government and engaged residents strengthen the “power and autonomy” that undergird upward mobility for young people.
Political participation: Political participation is a core source of individual and community power. Voters report greater empowerment, life satisfaction, well-being and self-rated health; residents of low-turnout states have higher odds of fair/poor health. (Blakely, Kennedy, & Kawachi 2001). Participation gaps persist: white eligible voters outvote Latine and Asian voters nearly 2:1 and exceed Black turnout by wide margins; Black and Latine people engage less overall, reflecting unequal resources and added structural barriers (e.g., time, information and registration costs) (Leighley 2001; Verba, Schlozman, & Brady 1995; Verba et al. 1993). Broader civic involvement — voting, petitions, meetings, donations, letters, campaigns and group membership — correlates with higher empowerment, though causality is not established (Zimmerman & Rappaport 1988). Activism is linked to higher well-being across multiple dimensions (Klar & Kasser 2009). Youth organizing amplifies political engagement: in California, 1.5- and second-generation youth activists were more likely to vote (81% vs. 60%) and protest (35% vs. 7%) than peers and youth in organizing groups encouraged their parents’ political involvement far more often (88% vs. 12%) (Terriquez & Lin 2019; Terriquez & Kwon 2014). (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility)
Descriptive representation: Descriptive representation — electing officials whose identities (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender) reflect their constituents — correlates with greater political influence, engagement and belonging among underrepresented groups. Black adults represented by Black members of Congress report higher internal efficacy: 35.2% “strongly disagree” that “people like me have no say,” versus 26.4% without a Black representative (Gleason & Stout 2014). Among Black constituents, co-ethnic congressional representation is linked to a 10-point increase in being “very interested” in campaigns, an 11.6-point increase in caring “a great deal” who wins, a 9-point increase in voting and a 2.3-point increase in top-tier community engagement; effects for Latine constituents at this level are smaller and not statistically significant (Fowler & Merolla 2012). At the state level, higher shares of Black legislators raise Black turnout — and similarly for the Latine turnout — across election types from 1996–2006 (Rocha et al. 2010). Together, these findings indicate that descriptive representation strengthens power, autonomy and civic participation. (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
Descriptive representation among local officials: Ratio of the share of local elected officials of a racial or ethnic group to the share of residents of the same racial or ethnic group. Political scientists commonly use this metric to capture the extent to which racial and ethnic groups are represented by their community’s elected leaders. (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).
