Essential Questions for Postsecondary Completion: Experiences and Neighborhood Conditions

Percentage of residential units that are unoccupied, or vacant, in a given year, disaggregated by rentals and homeownership (US Census Bureau).

Average age of housing stock, which helps communities isolate potential issues, like exposure to asbestos and/or lead paint and connect people to resources (US Census Bureau, American Community Survey).

Student mobility rate (Promise Neighborhoods; The Urban Institute, prepared for U.S. Department Of Education). 

Students experiencing housing instability and changing schools as a result (Data sources: Local SEA, LEA or school records or analysis) (StriveTogether 2021).

Number of students experiencing housing instability that requires changing schools (StriveTogether 2021).

Number of students who experience homelessness during the school year (StriveTogether 2021 and Urban Institute).

Number and share of public school children who are ever homeless during the school year. Housing instability and homelessness represent extreme manifestations of powerlessness and the loss of dignity and belonging, disrupting family stability and undermining both physical and emotional health (Urban Institute).

Percentage of eligible households receiving federal rental assistance (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Living arrangements: Types of household living arrangements reported (i.e. living with spouse/partner, with adult children under age 18, with adult children, with parents, with brothers or sisters, with other relatives, with other non-relatives, living with someone else) (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).

Neighborhood satisfaction: Percent of adults who were either somewhat or very satisfied with the overall quality of their neighborhood (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).

Neighborhood satisfaction: Percent of adults who were satisfied with characteristics of their neighborhood: quality of local schools, crime risk, natural disaster and severe weather risk, cost of housing (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).

Natural disaster risks: Percent of adults reporting being financially affected by natural disasters or severe weather events such as flooding, hurricanes, wildfires, or extreme temperatures (Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking).

There is sufficient availability of affordable housing for the number of families with low incomes in an area (city or county). (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of eligible households receiving federal rental assistance. (Education-to-Workforce).

% of household income spent on rent (StriveTogether 2021).

Number of affordable and available housing units per 100 households with low, very low, and extremely low incomes. This metric reflects the extent of housing options for households with low incomes. Housing is considered affordable when monthly costs fall at or below 30% of a household’s income (Urban Institute).

Ratio of (1) the number of affordable housing units to (2) the number of households with low and very low incomes in an area (city or county). Housing units are defined as affordable if the monthly costs do not exceed 30% of a household’s income. Households with low incomes are defined as those earning below 80% of area median income (AMI), and very low-income households are defined as those earning below 50% of AMI. (Education-to-Workforce).

Location affordability index (StriveTogether 2021).

Eviction rate (StriveTogether 2021).

Environmental racism, as measured by air quality index (StriveTogether 2021).

Environmental racism, as measured by environmental health hazards (StriveTogether 2021).

Level of public investment in neighborhoods as measured through programs like Opportunity Zones, Community Development Blocks and tax credits (StriveTogether).

Share of people experiencing poverty who live in high-poverty neighborhoods. A high-poverty neighborhood is where more than 40% of residents are experiencing poverty. This metric reflects the extent of economic segregation in a community (Urban Institute).

Invest in safe, affordable housing (Alliance for Early Success).

Balancing resident needs with inspector capacity: Initiatives focused on maintaining safe and healthy housing typically engage both property owners and tenants, and in many cases, housing inspectors. These programs intend to ensure that existing affordable homes remain safe, healthy, and high-quality. They typically address common home health hazards, which often fall into one of two major categories: physical injury/safety risks (i.e. unstable staircases or broken handrails) and illness-inducing hazards (such as lead paint, mold, pests, carbon monoxide, etc.). (Results for America).

Healthy home environment assessments: Professional home inspections evaluating environmental health risks (Results for America).

Proactive inspections to help maintain safe and healthy housing. The foundation of many effective programs is a more strategic deployment of a jurisdiction’s home inspection capacity. Oftentimes, this includes using data analysis to identify high-risk blocks or neighborhoods and then sending inspectors to walk those areas, conduct visual exterior assessments, speak to residents and schedule proactive inspections (Results for America).

Raising tenant and landlord awareness about maintaining safe and healthy housing. Many successful programs include a robust education component   —   often run by inspectors   —   to help landlords and tenants identify home hazards and other threats to home safety. This can include written materials, videos and public workshops (for instance, walking through a home to demonstrate an inspection). Such efforts also often include information on how to request a home inspection (Results for America).

Housing rehabilitation loan and grant programs: Funding in the form of loans and/or grants to income-eligible owner-occupants to assist with repair, rehabilitation and/or reconstruction of homes (Results for America).

To ensure property owners have the financial capacity to address home hazards, some programs provide income-eligible property owners with grants and/or loans to assist with repair, rehabilitation and/or reconstruction of homes. Funding is often tied to specific forms of home improvement, such insulation, plumbing or mold removal (Results for America).

Lead paint abatement programs: Programs focused on removing lead-based and contaminated surfaces from homes and other buildings (Results for America).

Adopting rent regulation, eviction prevention, just-cause eviction and right-to-counsel policies to protect tenants (Urban Institute).

Balancing community development with creating opportunities for residents with low income by addressing vacancy and blight; and investing in schools, transportation and job creation (Urban Institute).

Creating affordable homeownership opportunities, including by providing down payment or closing-cost assistance and expanding access to financing, such as through the use of subsidized or shared appreciation (Urban Institute).

Creating more dedicated affordable housing, including by subsidizing affordable housing development, establishing incentives for developers to create affordable units (e.g., density bonuses) and exploring ways to build affordable housing on publicly-owned land (Urban Institute).

Creating permanent supportive housing for individuals and families experiencing chronic homelessness (Urban Institute).

Enacting foreclosure prevention, property tax relief and rehabilitation assistance programs to assist homeowners (Urban Institute).

Enforcing fair housing laws (Urban Institute).

Expanding affordable housing in resource-rich neighborhoods (Urban Institute).

Increasing the overall housing supply, including by reforming zoning and land-use policies, streamlining permitting processes and creating incentives for developers to build new housing (Urban Institute).

Preserving subsidized and unsubsidized affordable rental housing (Urban Institute).

Providing rental assistance to residents and incentivizing landlords to rent to tenants receiving assistance (Urban Institute).

Reforming property taxes and property assessment processes to ensure that they do not disproportionately burden residents with low incomes (Urban Institute).

Supporting community development in high-poverty neighborhoods, including incomes to move to more resource-rich communities (Urban Institute). 

Supporting permanently affordable housing models, such as community land trusts (Urban Institute).

Transit connectivity index (Data source: Center for Neighborhood Technology) (StriveTogether 2021).

Individuals have access to low-cost and timely transportation to commute to school or work (Education-to-Workforce).

Average commute time to work, school, or college (Education-to-Workforce).

The Low Transportation Cost Index, from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (Education-to-Workforce).

Distance to school and average student travel time (Birth to Grade 3 Indicator Framework, 2017).

Average travel time to school (Data sources: Local SEA, LEA or school records or analysis) (StriveTogether 2021).

Average travel time to work (Data sources: Center for Neighborhood Technology; American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).

Percentage of workers who commute by walking and by biking (Data sources: Center for Neighborhood Technology; American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).

Trips made to work by mass transit (Data sources: Center for Neighborhood Technology; American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).

Access to mass transit departure and arrival points (Measuring Accessibility).

Share of income spent on transportation. This metric reflects how much households spend on both public transit and cars (Urban Institute).

Transportation access: Transit trips index and low transportation cost index (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Transit trips index. This metric reflects a community’s access to public transportation. It is file-ranked nationally based on the number of public transit trips taken annually by an average household earning 80% of the area median income (Urban Institute).

Transit trips index and transportation cost index. Without accessible transportation options, families may be unable to take advantage of opportunities for work and education, or they may have to trade expensive commutes for other needs and goods (Urban Institute).

Complete Streets approach to ensure the design of streets balance the needs of different modes of transportation, support local land uses, economies, cultures and natural environments (Smart Growth America).

Districts and schools explore transportation solutions to help students living far from school participate in sports or afterschool programs. (Promise Partnership Utah).

The United Way of Central Minnesota notes that a challenge in regards to transportation is that students within 2 miles of the school will not be picked up by the bus. This has students to the extent that some transfer schools twice within a single school year to access transportation during winter months. (United Way of Central Minnesota).

Complete Streets policies (Smart Growth America).

Availability of public transportation subsidies for students (Data sources: Local SEA, LEA or school records or analysis) (StriveTogether 2021).

Affordable housing within walking distance from public transportation (Data source: Center for Neighborhood Technology) (StriveTogether 2021).

Build housing development near transit, including affordable housing and housing for people with disabilities. Coordinate transportation and housing policy in a manner that simultaneously: (a) increases the number of residents living in close proximity to public transit; (b) fosters walkable communities centered around new and existing transit stations; and (c) preserves and expands affordable housing near these stations. By acting early, local jurisdictions can make the most of opportunities to preserve and create affordable housing as part of the development that takes place around new or planned transit stations. (Urban Institute and Local Housing Solutions).

Expanding transportation options, including public transportation, such as buses and light rails, and active transportation, such as bike lanes and sidewalks (Urban Institute).

Improving the quality and frequency of public transportation (Urban Institute).

Improving transportation accessibility for people with mobility challenges, including by creating paratransit systems and ensuring existing transit is accessible to people with disabilities (Urban Institute).

Reducing barriers to using public transportation, including by providing fare subsidies, making systems easy to navigate (e.g., having clear signage and route maps in multiple languages), and centralizing fares across different modes of transportation (Urban Institute).

Share of people experiencing poverty who live in high-poverty neighborhoods. A high-poverty neighborhood is where more than 40 percent of residents are experiencing poverty. This metric reflects the extent of economic segregation in a community (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

The concentration of poverty within a city or county. percentage of city or county residents experiencing poverty who live in a high-poverty neighborhood (defined as a neighborhood in which more than 40 % of residents experience poverty).  (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of children under age 6 living in neighborhoods in which more than 20% of the population lives in poverty (Rhode Island Kids Count).

Concentration of Poverty Block (Neighborhood Poverty): Based on 2000 U.S. Census information on the block group in which students lived on two reverse-coded indicators: (1) the log of the percentage of male residents over age 18 employed one or more weeks during the year and (2) the log of the percentage of families above the poverty line (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future). 

Economic inclusion: Share of residents experiencing poverty living in high-poverty neighborhoods  (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Percentage of city or county residents experiencing poverty who live in a high-poverty neighborhood (defined as a neighborhood in which more than 40% of residents experience poverty) (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Percentage of families who have lived in poverty for two generations or more (Brookings Institute).

Share of residents experiencing poverty who live in high-poverty neighborhoods. Economic segregation excludes families with low incomes from well-resourced and opportunity-rich neighborhoods, undermines their sense of belonging, and creates neighborhoods of concentrated poverty and distress, which damage their children’s long-term prospects (Urban Institute).

Expanding affordable housing in resource-rich neighborhoods (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Supporting community development in high-poverty neighborhoods, including by addressing vacancy and blight; and investing in schools, transportation, and job creation  (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Balancing community development with creating opportunities for residents with low incomes to move to more resource-rich communities (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Enforcing fair housing laws (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

ImpactTulsa’s Child Equity Index: ImpactTulsa is a collective impact organization in the StriveTogether Cradle to Career Network that works with local partners in the Tulsa, Oklahoma area to advance more equitable outcomes. The Child Equity Index, a data tool developed by ImpactTulsa in partnership with Tulsa Public Schools, aims to help partners better understand the landscape of opportunity and systemic inequities in the Tulsa area. The index uses more than 40 indicators to measure environmental conditions across six domains of influence: (1) student-level factors, (2) neighborhood health, (3) neighborhood socioeconomic status, (4) neighborhood safety, (5) neighborhood pride and custodianship, and (6) neighborhood access. The index uses student addresses to attach “place-based” measures to neighborhood environments, defined using census tract and zip code geographic boundaries. The index also uses a Neighborhood Model to measure the relationship between environmental conditions and students’ academic outcomes. Findings from the Child Equity Index have sparked conversation about systemic inequities in Tulsa and have translated into action for students and families. For example, when Internet access maps by census tract revealed inequities in access for low-income communities and communities of color, local school districts adjusted their remote learning strategies, and their partners launched a City of Tulsa Internet Access Taskforce. (Education-to-Workforce).

Rate of juvenile arrests by city or county (number of arrests per 100,000 residents) (Education-to-Workforce).

Minority youth who experience contact with the criminal justice system. A study in the American Sociological Review has shown aggressive policing can lower educational performance for black boys. These findings provide evidence that the consequences of policing extend into key domains of social life, with implications for the educational trajectories of minority youth and social inequality more broadly (Aggressive Policing and the Educational Performance of Minority Youth).

High school graduation rate and adult incarceration rate of youth who have ever been incarcerated. Estimates based on over 35,000 juvenile offenders over a ten-year period from a large urban county in the US suggest that juvenile incarceration results in large decreases in the likelihood of high school completion and large increases in the likelihood of adult incarceration (National Bureau of Economic Research).

Juvenile arrest data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program are publicly available and regularly reported (Education-to-Workforce).

Examining juvenile arrest rates by type of offense (for example, drug abuse violation, curfew and loitering, disorderly conduct, etc.) can also help data users better understand community dynamics and inequities in policing (Education-to-Workforce).

Examine data on post-arrest handling of juvenile cases (For example, users could examine whether youth are referred to juvenile court after arrest or diverted from formal court processing (Education-to-Workforce).

Restorative justice practices engage youth in repairing harm to victims, communities, or both, through actions such as restitution, community service, victim mediation, and family conferencing (The Justice Center: Council of State Governments).

Individuals have access to a reliable Internet connection and a personal desktop or laptop computer (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of individuals who have both (1) access to at least one desktop or laptop computer owned by someone in the home and (2) reliable broadband Internet (Education-to-Workforce).

Number and % of students who have school and home access to broadband internet and a connected computing device (Promise Neighborhoods; The Urban Institute, prepared for U.S. Department Of Education).

Access to internet and computer/devices and technical support (StriveTogether 2021).

Percentage of the community that has access to a desktop or laptop, a smartphone, a tablet or another computer (Data source: American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).

Percentage of households that have broadband internet subscriptions (Data source: American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).

Residential fixed broadband deployment (Data source: Federal Communications Commission) (StriveTogether 2021).

Share of households with a computer and broadband internet subscription in the home. This metric reflects a community’s digital divide by measuring in-home access to a computer and the internet, including DSL, cable modem, cellular data and fiber connections. Without reliable access to online resources, young people and adults are locked out of opportunities to learn, build skills, and gain the credentials they need to advance economically (Urban Institute).

State has a broadband task force/commission to promote broadband access (National Council of State Legislatures).

Connectivity: Even when learning is in-person, students and their families need internet access, proper equipment and training on utilizing online learning platforms to complete school-based learning and assignments. This access allows for greater access to learning opportunities and also ensures they can obtain learning materials if they must stay home. School districts should determine which students do not have internet access and equipment and determine through partnership with local and state governments, along with community partners how to secure the resources to address gaps. Districts and schools should also assess whether school staff have access to needed technology and equipment and the skills to use them. (Attendance Works, Expanded Metrics).

Technology to support learning and assessment in the classroom and online (Annie E. Casey Foundation).

Local and state coalitions who advocate for access to broadband with city and state officials and by partnering with telecommunications companies (National Council of State Legislatures).

Addressing financial barriers to home broadband internet access, including by providing direct cash transfers or subsidies for the costs of broadband service and devices, such as laptops, tablets and phones (Urban Institute).

Addressing physical barriers to home broadband internet access, such as the lack of appropriate infrastructure or wiring (Urban Institute).

Creating free, public options for accessing the internet, including by providing Wi-Fi in public, accessible spaces like libraries (Urban Institute).

Providing digital literacy training for residents, particularly underserved residents, to close the digital divide (Urban Institute).

The state subsidizes broadband subscriptions for families with limited incomes (FCC).

Federal Bipartisan Infrastructure Law: Offers broadband infrastructure and digital equity grants (Connected Nation).

Smart Cities policies and resources

Number and percentage of students who feel safe at school and traveling to and from school, as measured by a school climate survey (Promise Neighborhoods; The Urban Institute, prepared for U.S. Department Of Education).

Proportion of children with a parent or guardian who has served time in jail (Data source: Health Resources and Services Administration) (StriveTogether 2021).

Rate of violent felonies and property felonies by city or county (number of incidents per 100,000 residents). (Education-to-Workforce).

Rates of reported violent crime and property crime. Exposure to crime, even if one is not a direct victim, can contribute to stress, depression, and anxiety in youth and adults, and teens who are exposed to high levels of violent crime are more likely to engage in criminal activity themselves. (Data source: Federal Bureau of Investigation) (StriveTogether 2021) (Urban Institute).

Rate of juvenile arrests by city or county (number of arrests per 100,000 residents) (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Rate of juvenile justice arrests (Data source: Federal Bureau of Investigation) (StriveTogether 2021).

Numbers of reported property crimes and reported violent crimes per 100,000 people. This metric uses the numbers of reported property and violent crimes to measure community safety levels (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Shifting toward evidence-based policing, in partnership with communities (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Promoting community-led violence prevention initiatives, which identify residents at highest risk and intervene before conflict occurs (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Preventing gun violence by limiting access to firearms and raising awareness of gun safety best practices (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Creating reentry supports for those recently released from jail or prison (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Improving neighborhoods by redeveloping vacant or abandoned properties, installing street lighting, and supporting community-development activities (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Improving residents’ financial security, including by strengthening the social safety net and reducing obstacles to accessing public benefits (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Implementing restorative justice approaches, which can help reduce recidivism (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Percentage of an individual’s neighbors who are members of other racial or ethnic groups, calculated as a Neighborhood Exposure Index. (Education-to-Workforce).

Neighborhood exposure index, or share of a person’s neighbors who are people of other races and ethnicities (Data source: American Community Survey) (StriveTogether 2021).

Proportion of community residents who are immigrants (Data source: National Equity Atlas) (StriveTogether 2021).

Ratio of the share of local elected officials of a racial or ethnic group to the share of residents of the same racial or ethnic group (Data sources: American Community Survey; local elections data) (StriveTogether 2021).

Share of the voting-eligible population who are registered to vote and share who turn out to vote (Data source: Census) (StriveTogether 2021).

Index of people’s exposure to neighbors of different races and ethnicities. Racially and ethnically diverse neighborhoods are hallmarks of inclusive communities. This metric calculates separately for each racial or ethnic group the average share of that group’s neighbors who are members of other racial or ethnic groups (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Racial diversity: Neighborhood exposure index, or share of a person’s neighbors who are people of other races and ethnicities (Urban Institute, Boosting Upward Mobility).

Reforming zoning policies to allow for more diverse, high-density, mixed-income communities (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Expanding affordable housing in resource-rich neighborhoods (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Reducing housing discrimination in the private market, including by enacting source-of-income laws and funding fair housing organizations (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Narrowing racial homeownership gaps, including by creating affordable homeownership opportunities for households of color (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Enforcing fair housing laws (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Air quality. Carcinogenic, respiratory and neurological toxins in the air can harm people’s health. A higher value for this metric indicates better air quality and lower exposure to toxins (Urban Institute).

Reducing the carbon footprint of all public-sector operations, including by transitioning to clean energy sources, electrifying bus and vehicle fleets, retrofitting city-owned buildings, and implementing other energy efficiency measures  (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Incentivizing private-sector actors to reduce their carbon footprints, including by leveraging government procurement and contracting procedures (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Improving the quality and frequency of public transportation and encouraging housing development near transit to reduce reliance on personal vehicles (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Developing parks and other green spaces to absorb carbon and improve air quality (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Investing in green infrastructure, such as permeable pavements, that can help mitigate exposure to environmental stressors like extreme heat (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Addressing home health hazards, such as lead paint and pipes, to foster safe and healthy home environments (Urban Institute, Upward Mobility Initiative).

Juvenile arrests per 100,000 juveniles. High number of arrests among young people, ages 10 to 17, is a strong indicator of elevated criminal legal system involvement and over policing. This metric includes arrests for any crime or status offense (Urban Institute).

Creating community responder or co-responder programs for nonviolent emergencies, such as mental health or behavioral crises, domestic disputes, traffic safety issues and homelessness (Urban Institute).

Creating diversion programs and other alternatives to arrest, trial and incarceration (Urban Institute).

Improving police officer recruitment, retention and training, as well as addressing officer wellness (Urban Institute).

Minimizing the use of over-policing strategies, including stop-and-frisk, pretextual and non-safety-related traffic stops and “broken windows” policing (Urban Institute).

Shifting funding from police departments to other local agencies where appropriate, such as funding programs in schools to address truancy instead of relying on police officers to enforce truancy laws (Urban Institute).

Shifting toward evidence-based policing, in partnership with communities (Urban Institute).

Supporting greater police accountability, including by publishing data on police misconduct and use of force, advocating for the reform of qualified immunity and creating civilian oversight boards that operate independently of law enforcement agencies (Urban Institute).

Ratio of the share of local, elected officials of a racial or ethnic group to the share of residents of the same group. Political scientists commonly use this metric to capture the extent to which racial and ethnic groups are represented by their community’s elected leaders (Urban Institute).

Share of the voting-age population who turns out to vote. Voter turnout is a well-established and broadly available reflection of political engagement in a community (Urban Institute).

Number of membership associations per 10,000 people and ratio of Facebook friends with higher socioeconomic status to Facebook friends with lower socioeconomic status. Social networks help connect people across lines of income, education, and identity, enabling them to share information and other resources that support well-being, connect to opportunities for advancement, and strengthen feelings of belonging (Urban Institute).

Adopting direct democracy practices, such as participatory budgeting, to empower community members and encourage them to participate in local governance (Urban Institute).

Creating public financing systems for local elections (Urban Institute).

Reducing barriers to voting, including by automatically registering voters, expanding the number of voting sites and their voting hours and offering additional options, such as mail-in, early and absentee voting (Urban Institute).

Restoring voting rights to formerly incarcerated people (Urban Institute).

Scheduling local elections to coincide with state or national elections, which can lead to a more representative electorate (Urban Institute).

Scheduling local elections to coincide with state or national elections (Urban Institute).

Strengthening and diversifying the local government workforce, including by investing in hiring, recruitment, training and compensation (Urban Institute).

Strengthening civics education courses in schools (Urban Institute).

Supporting labor unions and the right to organize (Urban Institute).

Switching from at-large to district elections, adopting proportional representation systems and moving to choice voting or cumulative voting systems to make local governments more representative of their constituents (Urban Institute).

Creating local community resource maps, such as The Commit Partnership’s Community Resource and Asset Map (The Commit Partnership).

United Way 211, a free help line for people to find resources, support and services in their local community (United Way).

Promotoras are community health workers who serve as liaisons between their communities and health and social providers, particularly with Hispanic/Latino communities. They are trusted members of the community who share common language, culture and lived experiences to those they serve (MHP Salud).

GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs): The federal program is a comprehensive intervention program and is tasked with equalizing access to higher education for low- income students. The GEAR UP grantees are charged with establishing partnerships among school districts, colleges and other organizations to operate the projects; and states and partnerships are awarded six- year grants to provide the services at high- poverty middle and high schools (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).

Upward Bound: One of the largest and longest running federal programs, Upward Bound is “designed to generate skills and motivation necessary for success in education beyond high school among young people from low- income backgrounds and inadequate secondary school preparation” (Public Law 90- 222, December 23, 1967) (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).

Talent Search: The Talent Search program was created in 1965 as one of the original federal TRIO programs, which also includes Upward Bound (discussed in the previous section). The program is designed to help low- income, first generation college students prepare for and gain access to college by providing information on the types of high school courses students should take to prepare for college and on the financial aid available to pay for college. The program also helps students complete financial aid applications and navigate the college application process. (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).

Project GRAD: First launched in Houston, Texas, Project Graduation Really Achieves Dreams (Project GRAD) is designed to improve academic achievement, high school graduation rates, and rates of college attendance for low- income students. It does this by first trying to help students arrive at high school better prepared academically by implementing a specific reading and math curricula, along with enhanced professional development for teachers, at the elementary and middle school levels. At the high school level, Project GRAD offers special academic counseling and summer academic enrichment and a college scholarship (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).

AVID: The Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) Program targets students in fifth through twelfth grade with the hope of helping students who are capable of completing a rigorous curriculum but currently fall short of their potential. Many of AVID’s students are from low- income or minority families. To improve outcomes, AVID attempts to enroll students in more challenging classes, including honors and advanced placement (AP) courses. Students also enroll in the AVID elective, in which they learn organizational and study skills, work on critical thinking, and get academic help from peers and college tutors (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).

Puente Project: The Puente Project is an outreach program with the goal of increasing the number of educationally disadvantaged students who enroll in four year institutions, earn degrees, and return to the community as mentors. Although it services all kinds of students, Puente targets Latino students in particular as an original goal was to increase the number of Latino students attending the University of California. The program includes a rigorous counseling component in which participants meet with trained community members. Students must also meet at least monthly with teachers and advisors to discuss challenges and life choices. Their parents must also sign a statement agreeing to support the student and attend necessary meetings (Bridget Terry Long, Dropout Prevention and College Prep).

Percentage of births to mothers with less than a 12th grade education (Rhode Island Kids Count). 

Births to teens ages 15-17 per 1,000 girls (Project Thrive, NCCP).

Childhood Migrant Education Program participant (California Department of Education & WestEd, Cradle-to-Career Data System Public Data Definitions).

Foster youth status (California Department of Education & WestEd, Cradle-to-Career Data System Public Data Definitions).

Individuals have not experienced repeated traumatic events within home environments. Childhood experiences such as maltreatment, interparental violence, family disruption, poverty, and stress all have a negative impact on children’s development and lifelong outcomes. (Education-to-Workforce).

Reduced exposure of children to adverse childhood experiences (ACES) (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Percentage of individuals with fewer than three ACEs. (Education-to-Workforce).

Physical, sexual and emotional abuse in childhood (Head Start ECLKC).

Emotional and physical neglect in childhood (Head Start ECLKC).

Children living with a family member with mental health or substance use disorders (Head Start ECLKC).

Witnessing domestic violence in childhood (Head Start ECLKC).

Sudden separation from a loved one in childhood (Head Start ECLKC).

Childhood poverty (Head Start ECLKC).

Racism and discrimination in childhood (Head Start ECLKC).

Violence in the community during childhood (Head Start ECLKC).

Percentage of individuals with fewer than three Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Children in households where the household head has graduated high school. (Note: Those who have a GED or equivalent are included as high school graduates.) (Data source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Communities Survey.) (Annie E. Casey Foundation).

Number of U.S. children living in poverty with asthma (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Mother’s Highest Level of Education: Student reported on the 2005 CCSR survey her mother/female guardian’s highest level of education completed (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future). 

Mother’s Nativity: Student reported on the 2005 CCSR survey if her mother/female guardian was born in the United States (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future). 

Deaths caused by injury per 100,000 people. These deaths both reflect and cause trauma in a community. They include planned deaths (e.g., homicides or suicides) and unplanned deaths (e.g., from motor vehicle and other accidents) (Urban Institute).

AVANCE Parent-Child Education Program (PCEP): Nine-month intensive bilingual program for child development (Results for America).

Triple P Spartanburg (Positive Parenting Program): Free services to help develop parenting skills and understanding of child development (Triple P Spartanburg).

Hello Family Spartanburg: Parent support and education initiative (Hello Family Spartanburg).

ParentCorps: Early childhood, family-centered intervention that takes place in schools and Head Start programs (Results for America).

Evidence-based home visiting programs (Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center).

Lead paint inspection and abatement (Rhode Island Kids Count).

Training for parents and caregivers in building nurturing relationships with children. For instance, Promoting First Relationships (PFR) is a comprehensive training program designed to support professionals who work with caregivers and young children (birth to 5 years). The program equips professionals with the knowledge, tools, and strategies needed to help caregivers build nurturing and responsive relationships with children. The Child Development Institute provides training that helps parents and caregivers learn how to support their children’s healthy growth and development (Promoting First Relationships Program and Child Development Institute).

Creating targeted supports for vulnerable groups, including children and young people   —   particularly those in foster care and those returning from juvenile detention   —   and survivors of domestic or intimate partner violence (Urban Institute).

Fostering positive learning environments for students, including by developing programs that prevent bullying, moving away from punitive disciplinary practices and applying other trauma-informed practices (Urban Institute).

Improving traffic safety by implementing calming measures, building complete streets and creating safer environments for pedestrians and bicyclists (Urban Institute).

Increasing access to mental health services, including substance use treatment and prevention (Urban Institute).

Preventing gun violence by limiting access to firearms, keeping guns out of schools and raising awareness of gun safety best practices (Urban Institute).

Strengthening workplace safety regulations and creating paid sick leave and predictable scheduling laws to enhance worker well-being (Urban Institute).

Percentage of individuals living in a census track with low access to healthy food, as defined by the USDA’s Food Access Research Atlas. (Education-to-Workforce).

Number and % of children who consume five or more servings of fruits and vegetables daily (Promise Neighborhoods; The Urban Institute, prepared for U.S. Department Of Education).

Percentage of eligible individuals participating in SNAP. (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of eligible units with children under age 18 not receiving SNAP (Prenatal to 3 Policy Impact Center).

Percentage of eligible units with children under age 18 not receiving SNAP (Desired outcome: Families have access to necessary services through expanded eligibility, reduced administrative burden or programs to identify needs and connect families with services)  (Prenatal to 3 Policy Impact Center).

Percentage of eligible individuals receiving WIC benefits (U.S. Department of Agriculture).

Percentage of individuals with high or marginal food security, as measured by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Food Security Survey Module (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Number of food-insecure children in the U.S. (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Percentage of households reporting child food insecurity (Prenatal to 3 Policy Impact Center).

Percentage of individuals with high or marginal food security, as measured by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Food Security Survey Module. (Education-to-Workforce).

Number of children who receive free lunch during the summer (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Percentage of individuals with high or marginal food security, as measured by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Food Security Survey Module (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

Proportion of eligible students participating in the School Breakfast Program (Data source: U.S. Department of Agriculture) (StriveTogether 2021).

Proportion of households experiencing food insecurity (Data sources: Census, Child Protective Services) (StriveTogether 2021).

Support health and affordable food options in high-poverty neighborhoods (Alliance for Early Success).

Increase participation of families, child care providers, schools, and communities in federal nutrition programs (Alliance for Early Success).

Summer food programs keep kids healthy when school is out (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Breakfast at school improves attendance and learning (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Reduced Administrative Burden for SNAP (Prenatal to 3 Policy Impact Center).

Create Food Security: College students who are worried about their next meal are not able to fully engage in their studies. Unfortunately, students who experience food insecurity are often ineligible for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) – a crucial means-tested program that provides a monthly benefit to be used for qualifying food purchases – due to requirements that can present undue barriers for students to access this assistance. Policymakers should make permanent the COVID-era exemption that allows students who would otherwise be eligible for SNAP to receive these benefits by fulfilling the 20-hour work requirement with a combination of work and credit hours. (NCAN, Ensuring Food Security).

States expand access to WIC benefits (e.g., increasing income threshold, extending benefits for postpartum people).

Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP): Allows educational programs in eligible low-income areas to serve a free meal and/or snack to students 18 and younger (No Kid Hungry).

Percentage of individuals with health insurance. This measure captures participation in any insurance program, including those offered by the government (such as CHIP and Medicaid), employers, or community clinics, as well as those that individuals purchase (for example, through Health Insurance Marketplaces). Multiple surveys measure health insurance coverage and can be adapted for use by educational institutions or employers. At the national level, they include the Current Population Survey, Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, National Health Interview Survey, and Survey of Income and Program Participation. (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of eligible individuals (children or adults) enrolled in Medicaid or CHIP. This information can be used to support families with low incomes in enrolling in these programs. (Education-to-Workforce).

Percentage of eligible individuals (children or adults) enrolled in Medicaid or CHIP (Education-to-Workforce Framework).

% of uninsured U.S. children overall and % of uninsured U.S. children who are living in poverty (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

% of children nationally without a medical home. A medical home is a health care setting that patients visit regularly for their primary care needs, building familiarity and consistency with care providers (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Ratio of population per primary care physician. Access to health services is essential to both preventive care and treatment of health conditions, enabling people to enjoy the good health that facilitates success in school, work, and social relationships (Urban Institute).

Air quality index. Environmental hazards expose people to health risks that threaten their quality of life and may undermine school and work performance (Urban Institute).

Deaths due to injury per 100,000 people. Exposure to trauma affects children’s brain and socioemotional development; undermines people’s feelings of connection, agency, and self-efficacy; and interferes with capacities for school and work success (Urban Institute).

The Hope Center Student Basic Needs Survey aims to understand the prevalence of student basic needs in securities on campuses and to provide actionable data for partner institutions (The Hope Center Student Basic Needs Survey).

Expand outreach to ensure access to affordable, physical, oral, and mental health insurance coverage for children and parents (Alliance for Early Success).

Simplify enrollment to ensure access to affordable, physical, oral, and mental health insurance coverage for children and parents (Alliance for Early Success).

Eliminate barriers to retention to ensure access to affordable, physical, oral, and mental health insurance coverage for children and parents (Alliance for Early Success).

Address health care shortages   —  both of providers who accept Medicaid/CHIP, and of providers who offer specialized care (e.g., dental care, mental health, developmental specialists) (Alliance for Early Success).

Increase access to comprehensive health (medical) homes that identify and respond to the physical, social, and emotional determinants of health (Alliance for Early Success).

Prioritize funding for prevention programs, including those delivered outside of traditional medical settings (Alliance for Early Success).

Implement health care data systems to track and improve referral and follow-up services (Alliance for Early Success).

Improve coordination between IDEA Part B and C, primary care, and public health programs (Alliance for Early Success).

Access to high-quality, affordable, comprehensive health care (including preventative, acute, emergency, and chronic care) for physical, mental, and oral health for all families with infants and young children (Annie E. Casey Foundation).

Policies and programs which would increase access to health insurance for children and to improved education for parents, particularly in low-income families, could play an important role in fostering children’s educational success. In families, parents are the first teachers, preparing their children to read simply by talking and reading to them frequently. Parents can be the first to spot health and developmental problems that may lead to reading difficulties. But parents don’t always know what to look for or how to help their children, and access to health care is essential. Poverty is strongly associated with lack of health insurance coverage. For example, 10 % of people in families with incomes of $50,000 or more are not covered by health insurance, but this jumps 19 % for those with family incomes between $25,000 and $49,999, and to 29 % for those with family incomes below $25,000. Children in poor families also are more likely than their peers to have parents with limited education, because lower education is associated with earning lower incomes.  (Annie E. Casey, Double Jeopardy).

Expanding Medicaid, under the Affordable Care Act, eligibility significantly increases access to healthcare for low-income families and children. States that expanded Medicaid have seen higher rates of insured children, better access to preventive care, and improved health outcomes. States like New Mexico and Oregon have seen significant declines in uninsured rates after expansion (Centennial Care Medicaid; Oregon Health Plan). 

Expanding School Based Health Centers allows students to access medical, dental, and mental health services in schools. Medicaid reimbursement for SBHC services ensures financial sustainability. Colorado and Maryland use Medicaid billing to fund SBHCs, improving student health and attendance (Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment; Maryland Public Schools).

California, Illinois, and Washington offer coverage to all children, including undocumented minors, extending Medicaid/CHIP-like coverage to all children, regardless of immigration status (California Budget and Policy Center; Illinois Department of Human Services; Washington State Health Care Authority).  

Continuous eligibility policies for Medicaid and CHIP benefits ensures children maintain Medicaid/CHIP coverage for 12 months, even if family income fluctuates.

Streamlining Medicaid/CHIP enrollment through automatic data matching with other public programs (e.g., SNAP). Reduces paperwork and administrative barriers for families. Louisiana uses data-driven auto-enrollment to increase child health coverage rates (Louisiana Department of Health).

Universal child health insurance. In 1998, an Institute of Medicine committee found that “insurance coverage is the major determinant of whether children have access to health care,” and that uninsured children are “most likely to be sick as newborns, less likely to be immunized as preschoolers, less likely to receive medical treatment when they are injured, and less likely to receive treatment for illnesses such as acute or recurrent ear infections, asthma, and tooth decay.” Other studies have verified that after enrolling in the Children’s Health Insurance Program, children’s unmet health needs fall by 50 % or more and their routine health, dental and asthma care improves in terms of both access and quality. Despite gains made under the Affordable Care Act, however, the United States is still far from ensuring that all children have health insurance (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Ensure a medical home for every child. A medical home is a health care setting that patients visit regularly for their primary care needs, building familiarity and consistency with care providers. Care typically is provided by a team of practitioners including physicians, medical assistants, nurses, nurse practitioners and care coordinators. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) defines a medical home for infants and children as having well-trained primary care physicians who are known to the child and family, able to develop “a partnership of mutual responsibility and trust,” and able to help manage and facilitate all aspects of pediatric care. Medical homes are especially important for medically underserved children, who often have more “chronic conditions and economic, geographic, and psychosocial factors” that combine to aggravate medical problems (Campaign for Grade-Level Reading).

Medi-Cal status: California’s Medicare health care program (California Department of Education & WestEd, Cradle-to-Career Data System Public Data Definitions).

Rates of financial insecurity by race. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care, and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by race. A study by Jobs for the Future found that compared with white students, Black and Latine students were more likely to have needed food, housing, utility, and medical assistance. Black students additionally were more likely than white and Latine students to have needed child care assistance. Both Black and Latine students were more likely than white students to have faced difficulty covering a $500 emergency. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).

Rates of financial insecurity by gender. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care, and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by gender. A study by Jobs for the Future found that in comparison to men, women were almost two times more likely to report they would struggle to handle a $500 emergency. Additionally, women in the sample indicated a significantly higher likelihood of using welfare services than men: Women were 1.5 times more likely to use food assistance, 1.4 times more likely to use housing assistance, 1.3 times more likely to use utility assistance, and 1.6 more likely to use medical care assistance. Among students who were parents, women were two times more likely to require child care assistance. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).

Rates of financial insecurity by parent-status. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care, and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by whether the student is a parent. A study by Jobs for the Future found that being a parent had a major impact on the use of welfare assistance across all measures, with use of food assistance 4.6 times higher, use of medical assistance 3.2 times higher, and difficulty of covering a $500 emergency 1.5 times higher compared with students who were not parents. The greater financial insecurity of parents was evident within all racial and ethnic groups. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).

Rates of financial insecurity of students based on their grant/scholarship status. That is, the ability of a college student to meet food, housing, utility, medical care, and child care expenses and a $500 emergency expense, disaggregated by whether the student relied on grants and scholarships to pay for college. Students relying on grants or scholarships (including Pell grants) were more than two times more likely than those not relying on this method of tuition payment to need food, housing, utility, and medical assistance. In addition, students who relied on student loans to pay tuition were more than 2.5 times more likely than other students to be unable to cover a $500 emergency and also more likely than students who did not rely on loans to face more financial insecurity across all the measures. Those students relying on family assistance and personal savings were the least likely to face financial insecurities. (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).

Average Education and Occupation Status of Adults (Neighborhood SES): Based on 2000 U.S. Census information on the block group in which students lived on two indicators: (1) the log of the percentage of employed persons 16 years old or older who are managers or executives and (2) the mean level of education among people over 18 (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future). 

Student Immigrant Status: Student reported on the 2005 CCSR survey if she was born in the United States and age of immigration (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future). 

Work: Student reported on the 2005 CCSR survey how many hours per week was spent working for pay (Roderick, M. From high school to the Future). 

Findings from student financial wellness surveys. For example,Trellis Strategies’ Student Financial Wellness Survey offers insights into how student’s financial wellness influences success at postsecondary institutions. The survey covers topics including basic needs, financial behaviors, paying for college, perceptions of institutional support and mental health (Student Financial Wellness Survey).

The IHEP Toward Convergence framework explores the advantages and disadvantages of six potential measures of economic status: Pell Grant receipt, Pell Grant eligibility, expected family contribution (EFC), income, poverty status, and student’s home location (geocode). It ultimately recommends using Pell Grant receipt as the primary indicator of low-income status. Income is a promising indicator for economic status that should be tested further in the field and explored for inclusion in future iterations of the framework. (IHEP, Toward Convergence).

The IHEP Toward Convergence framework recommends using Pell Grant receipt as the primary indicator of low-income status among college students, despite its known limitations. Pell receipt is the most frequently used measure of economic status in the field, and each alternate indicator faces even more substantial limitations than Pell receipt. While Pell receipt is a frequently used proxy for economic status, it is not perfectly accurate. Its primary limitation is that it undercounts the proportion of low-income students, especially at institutions where many do not apply for federal financial aid, due to either lack of information, low costs, or citizenship status. Also, it is subject to changes in federal financial aid policy, sometimes causing notable shifts that may not actually reflect demographic shifts. However, Pell receipt remains the primary indicator of economic status used by the field, is fairly comprehensive of low-income students, and takes into consideration important factors that influence financial need, such as family size. (IHEP, Toward Convergence).

Institutions can use economic status to disaggregate other metrics and gain a better understanding of how low-income students are accessing and succeeding in their colleges or universities. Low-income students face different challenges in higher education than do middle- and high-income students, so it is crucial that institutions have access to disaggregated data to identify gaps and to tailor solutions and financial aid strategies for the neediest students. Recent research confirms that some institutions serve low-income populations more effectively than others, so institutions can use these data to continuously improve student access and success.

State and federal policymakers often express interest in understanding how low-income students access, progress through, and succeed in higher education. At the federal level specifically, policymakers are interested in the outcomes of low-income students, and a recent Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) proposal includes Outcome Measures for Pell Grant recipients.

Student Basic Needs Centers: Over the past 10 years, colleges, especially public and community, have stepped in to provide and connect students in need with supports. One national survey found that 74% of the responding institutions had some kind of emergency aid program in place for their students. Consolidating these services through Basic Needs Centers located on college campuses and accessed virtually can make it easier for students to apply for an array of financial, food, child care, housing, transportation, and other assistance in “one shop.” One of the biggest challenges with these centers, however, is their low utilization rate. Some research suggests that utilization rates rise when students are provided nudging in the form of email or text messages about services in ways that are not stigmatizing (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).

Federal, state, and local assistance for students facing financial hardships: Systems and policies of financial support for students have not kept pace with the “new economics of college.” Unlike in the past, when four-year colleges largely admitted young white students from middle income or higher families, the good news today is that there are many more people from low-income families attending college who are also older adults, workers, and caregivers. However, although the demographics of students have shifted, college costs have risen, minimum wages have stagnated, and inflationary pressures have driven up the costs of food and housing. Students from low-income families are more likely than other students to depend on loans, grants, and scholarships to help cover the expenses of attending college. But as this and other research shows, these kinds of financial assistance are inadequate, leaving too many students hungry, homeless, and unable to pay basic expenses including medical and child care. Unfortunately, outdated rules currently exclude many students from participating in federal food and housing assistance programs. And even among those who qualify, the uptake of benefits has been low. In 2018, for example, the U.S. Department of Agriculture found that only 2.6% of eligible students were receiving SNAP food assistance compared with 85% of those in the population as a whole who were eligible for this program. Additional research has found that housing assistance programs also sometimes limit student eligibility. For postsecondary education to be accessible and feasible for all students, the “new economics of education” will require systems of assistance that better meet student need and increase accessibility (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).

National data on postsecondary student financial wellness  —  the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study  —  are limited. The NPSAS, which surveys students about how they finance their education, is administered only every three to four years. Data about student financial wellness are not collected in the survey but gathered mainly through interviews, which results in a much more limited sample. To better monitor student financial well-being and address gaps, annual institutional-level financial well-being data are needed. With this kind of data, institutions can assess student financial insecurity over time, link financial insecurity measures to outcomes to assist policy and program development, and evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policy changes (Jobs for the Future, Unveiling Disparities).